Focusing on reading and writing ability/disability from an interactive perspective, this text emphasizes the importance of understanding and addressing learner’s difficulties in relation to the instructional context.   Extensive, in-depth treatment of current research and best practices make this text a 'must-have' addition to any current or future teacher's library. Section I (Chs. 1-3) provides readers with a strong, comprehensive knowledge of reading/writing research and an introduction to an assessment-instruction process that is described in-depth in the second, third, and fourth sections of the text.  Section two considers the foundations of literacy with a strong emphasis on language development along with detailed information on evaluating the instructional context.  Section three focuses on procedures for evaluating the learner, including both classroom-based and standardized assessments. Section four stands alone as an important chapter examining the relationship between the instructional context and learner’s strengths and weaknesses by means of diagnostic teaching. Section five is devoted to instructional practices designed to improve reading and writing instruction for struggling students. Chapters on word recognition, vocabulary, comprehension-composition, and “high-utility strategies” address the major components of literacy development. In the final section (Ch. 16), issues related to professional standards and written reports are addressed.

Table of Contents:
SECTION ONE Theory into Practice 1 1 Perspectives on Reading and Writing Ability 3 Understanding Reading and Writing 4 Historical Perspectives on Reading and Writing 4 Cognitive Information-Processing Perspectives on Reading and Writing 5 Social Perspectives on Reading and Writing 7 An Interactive Perspective on Reading and Writing 9 Understanding the Legal and Political Aspects of Reading and Writing 11 Educational Reform, Reading, and Literacy 11 Legal and Social Roots of Special Education 13 Special Education Identification 15 Students with Disabilities 16 Implications for Practice 18 Integration/Inclusion 20 Chapter Summary 21 2 An Interactive View of Reading and Writing 23 Understanding the Elements of Skilled Performance 23 Comprehension 25 Composition 26 Vocabulary Development 27 Word Identification and Spelling 28 Rate and Fluency 33 Grammar, Usage, and the Mechanics of Writing 34 Understanding Contextual Factors That Influence Performance 36 Settings 36 Instructional Practices 37 Instructional Resources 39 Assessment Practice 41 Understanding Learner Factors That Influence Performance 42 Prior Content Knowledge 42 Knowledge about Reading and Writing 44 Attitudes and Motivation 47 Correlates of Reading and Writing Performance 49 Chapter Summary 54 3 Readingand Writing Disability and the Assessment- Instruction Process 56 Steps in the Assessment-Instruction Process 56 Understanding an Interactive View of Reading and Writing Ability and Disability 56 A Theoretically Sound View of Ability and Disability 57 An Instructionally Significant View of Ability and Disability 58 Understanding the Assessment-Instruction Process 59 Implementing the Assessment-Instruction Process 60 Steps in the Assessment-Instruction Process 63 Chapter Summary 75 SECTION TWO Getting Started and Evaluating the Context 77 4 Getting Started with Assessment 79 Understanding Assessment 79 Contexts for Assessment 79 Guidelines for Assessment 81 The Diagnostic Portfolio and the Thumbnail Sketch 84 Sources of Information 86 Tools and Strategies for Getting Started 91 Interviews 91 Observation 105 Work Samples 112 Getting Started on the Diagnostic Portfolio 113 The Cases of Tha’m and Kyle 113 Chapter Summary 120 Assessing Instructional Resources 217 Evaluating Text and Commercial Materials 217 Evaluating Tutoring Programs 234 Evaluating Computer Software and Information/Communication Technology 235 Diagnostic Portfolio: The Instructional Context 240 Diagnostic Portfolio: The Cases of Tha’m and Kyle 240 Tha’m 240 Kyle 243 Chapter Summary 245 SECTION THREE Evaluating the Learner 247 7 The Foundations of Literacy 249 Understanding the Foundations of Literacy 249 Background 249 The Language Foundations of Literacy 250 Learning to Talk 250 The Contextual/Experiential Foundations of Literacy 261 How Language Is Learned 261 Contextual Differences in Learning Language and Literacy 262 The Development of Written Language 271 Strategies and Tools for Assessing the Foundations of Literacy 274 Assessment of Early Language and Literacy 274 Diagnostic Portfolio and the Foundations of Literacy 275 Observing Spontaneous Use of Knowledge and Skill 278 Structured Interviews and Observations 288 Structured Writing Assessments 297 Using Stories to Assess Emergent Abilities 299 Diagnostic Portfolio and Evidence of Emergent Literacy: The Case of Kyle 302 Chapter Summary 305 8 Informal Classroom-Based Assessment 307 Understanding Informal Classroom-Based Assessment 308 Strategies and Tools for Teacher-Initiated Assessment 311 Evaluating Word Recognition and Decoding 311 Evaluating Oral Reading Fluency 320 Evaluating Vocabulary 323 Evaluating Comprehension 328 Writing 356 Student Self-Evaluation 361 Diagnostic Portfolio: Evidence from the Classroom 362 Tha’m 362 Kyle 363 Chapter Summary 363 9 Structured Inventories and Assessments 365 Understanding Structured Inventories and Assessments 365 Strategies and Tools for Structured Assessments 367 Informal Reading Inventories 367 Contemporary IRIs: A Look at What’s New 385 Retellings of IRI Selections 392 Miscue Analysis 396 Oral Reading Fluency 403 Tests of Word Recognition, Phonics, and Spelling 409 Spelling Inventories 417 Evaluating Writing Samples 421 A Classroom System: Benchmark Book Events 422 Diagnostic Portfolio: Evidence from Structured Inventories 430 Tha’m 430 Kyle 432 Chapter Summary 435 Annotated Bibliography of IRIs 436 10 Formal Assessment 438 Understanding Formal Assessment 438 Concerns 439 General Test Characteristics 440 Important Statistical Concepts 442 Validity 444 Reliability 449 Test Interpretations 452 Test Scores 455 Test Fairness 459 Guidelines for Evaluating Standardized Tests 463 Formal Assessment Tools 463 Screening and Survey Tests 465 Group Screening and Survey Tests 466 Diagnostic Tests 474 Tests of General Cognitive and Verbal Abilities 490 Early Literacy Assessment 492 Chapter Summary 496 Tests Cited 499 SECTION FOUR Interactions: Assessment as Inquiry 501 11 Interactive Decision Making 503 Understanding Step 4: Evaluating the Match Between Learner and Context 504 Understanding Step 5: Reflection, Decision Making, and Planning 505 Understanding Step 6: Diagnostic Teaching 506 Definition and Purposes 507 Diagnostic Teaching Procedures 509 Implementing Steps 4, 5, and 6 of the Assessment-Instruction Process 515 Thumbnail Sketch 515 The Case Study of Tha’m 515 The Case Study of Kyle 525 The Case Study of Yasmin 527 Diagnostic Portfolios: Making Diagnostic Teaching Work 534 Target Selections for Diagnostic Teaching 534 A Collection of Diagnostic Teaching Selections 535 Chapter Summary 537 SECTION FIVE Instruction 539 12 Getting Started in Instruction 541 Key Characteristics of the Instructional Program 542 Goals and Objectives 542 Establishing a Literate Environment 542 Organizational Patterns 545 Materials 546 Getting Started with a Lesson Framework and High-Utility Strategies 547 A Lesson Framework 548 Familiar Reading: Focus on Fluency 549 Guided Reading 553 Dictated Stories as an Alternative to Guided Reading 558 Guided Writing 562 Word Study: Focusing on Word Recognition and Vocabulary 563 Sustained Reading and Writing: Focusing on Practice, Application, and Disposition 566 Getting More Focused on Specific Students 573 Lesson Planning 573 Example: Getting Started with Tha’m 576 Background and Setting 576 Selecting High-Utility Strategies 576 Selecting Materials 577 Planning for Tha’m 577 Chapter Summary 580 13 Adapting Instruction to Focus on Word Recognition, Fluency, and Spelling 582 Understanding Word Recognition, Fluency, and Spelling Instruction 583 The Nature of Word Identification, Fluency, and Spelling 583 Issues 585 Guidelines for Instruction Focused on Word Recognition, Fluency, and Spelling 593 Instructional Techniques Focused on Word Recognition and Analysis 597 Instructional Strategies and Tools: Students with No Print Skills 597 Instructional Strategies and Tools: Students with Some Print Skills 603 Instructional Strategies and Tools: Print Skills for More Advanced Readers 608 Instructional Techniques Focused on Spelling 612 Instructional Focus at Various Developmental Spelling Levels 612 Instructional Strategies and Tools for Spelling 614 A Final Note 615 Chapter Summary 615 14 Adapting Instruction to Focus on Vocabulary 617 Understanding Vocabulary Instruction 618 Issues 618 Goals 619 Guidelines 620 Summary 622 Strategies for Vocabulary Instruction 622 A General Framework for Independent Vocabulary Learning 622 Supporting Techniques 625 Strategies for Teaching Specific Vocabulary 630 General Vocabulary Development 636 Teaching General Vocabulary 636 Chapter Summary 640 15 Adapting Instruction to Focus on Comprehension, Composition, and Studying 642 Focusing Instruction on Comprehension, Composition, and Studying 643 The Nature of Instruction in Comprehension and Composition 643 Becoming Strategic 645 Deepening Understanding through Discussion and Writing 649 Guidelines for Instruction Focused on Comprehension and Composition 651 Instructional Techniques Focused on Comprehension and Composition 655 Providing Explicit Instruction 655 Providing Support 666 Developing Independence 681 Studying: A Specialized Case of Reading and Writing 685 Explicit Instruction 685 Supported Studying 685 Teaching Students to Study 689 Needed: A Functional, Integrated Approach to Study Skills Instruction 693 Reading, Writing, and Studying across the Curriculum 694 Chapter Summary 695 SECTION SIX Professional Roles and Responsibilities 697 16 Professional Roles and Responsibilities 699 The Role(s) of the English Language Arts Professional 700 Reporting to Others 700 General Guidelines 701 Reporting via Diagnostic Summaries with Multiple Assessments 702 Report Writing: Different Types for Different Purposes 706 Procedures for Writing Diagnostic Case Reports 708 Progress Reports 720 Conferences 722 Ethical Responsibilities 724 Chapter Summary 726 Appendix A Sample Case Report: Seth 728 Appendix B Confidential Diagnostic Report 737 References 749 Index 788