Critical Thinking is a comprehensive introduction to the essential skills of good reasoning, refined and updated through seven editions published over more than two decades. This concise edition offers a succinct presentation of the essential elements of reasoning that retains the rigor and sophistication of the original text. The authors provide a thorough treatment of such central topics as deductive and inductive reasoning, logical fallacies, how to recognize and avoid ambiguity, and how to distinguish what is relevant from what is not. A companion website provides a range of interesting supplements, including interactive review materials, supplemental readings, and writing tips.

Acknowledgments
Online Materials

PART ONE: INTRODUCTION

Chapter 1: Reasoning and Critical Thinking

1. Reasoning
2. The Concept of Logical Strength
3. Truth, Logical Strength, and Soundness
4. Critical Thinking Skills
5. Critical Thinking and the Science of Logic
6. Self-Test No. 1
7. Questions for Discussion

PART TWO: MEANING

Chapter 2: Meaning and Definition

1. The Complexity of Language
2. The Meaning of Language
3. 1. The Reference Theory of Meaning
   2. The Idea Theory of Meaning
   3. Meaning as Use
4. The Main Functions of Language
5. Self-Test No. 2
6. Questions for Discussion
7. Definition
8. The Purposes of Definition
9. 1. Reportive Definitions
   2. Stipulative Definitions
   3. Essentialist Definitions
10. Methods of Definition
11. 1. Genus-Species Method
    2. Ostensive Method
    3. Synonym Method
    4. Operational Method
    5. Contextual Method
12. Assessing Reportive Definitions
13. 1. Too Broad a Definition
    2. Too Narrow a Definition
    3. Too Broad and Too Narrow a Definition
    4. Circular Definition
    5. Obscure Definition
14. Assessing Stipulative and Essentialist Definitions
15. A Warning
16. Self-Test No. 3
17. Questions for Discussion

Chapter 3: Clarifying Meaning

1. The Principle of Charity
2. Linguistic Ambiguity
3. 1. Ambiguity and Vagueness
   2. Referential Ambiguity
   3. Grammatical Ambiguity
   4. Use and Mention
4. Self-Test No. 4
5. Analytic, Contradictory, and Synthetic Statements
6. Self-Test No. 5
7. Descriptive and Evaluative Meaning
8. Self-Test No. 6
9. Necessary and Sufficient Conditions
10. Self-Test No. 7
11. Questions for Discussion

Chapter 4: Reconstructing Arguments

1. Reconstruction
2. Missing Premises and Conclusions
3. Self-Test No. 8
4. Special Cases
5. 1. Reports of Arguments
   2. Explanations
6. Self-Test No. 9
7. The Structure of Arguments
8. 1. Simple Arguments
   2. T Arguments
   3. V Arguments
   4. Complex Arguments
9. Self-Test No. 10
10. Another Warning
11. Questions for Discussion

PART THREE: ASSESSING ARGUMENTS

Chapter 5: Strategies for Assessing Arguments

1. The Fallacies Approach
2. The Criterial Approach
3. 1. The Three Criteria of a Sound Argument
4. Seven Rules for Assessing Arguments
5. 1. Rule 1. Identify the Main Conclusion
   2. Rule 2. Identify the Premises
   3. Rule 3. Identify the Structure of the Argument
   4. Rule 4. Check the Acceptability of the Premises
   5. Rule 5. Check the Relevance of the Premises
   6. Rule 6. Check the Adequacy of the Premises
   7. Rule 7. Look for Counter-Arguments

Chapter 6: Assessing Truth-Claims

1. Theories of Truth
2. 1. The Correspondence Theory
   2. The Coherence Theory
   3. The Pragmatic Theory
3. Types of Truth-Claims
4. 1. Empirical Truth-Claims
   2. Non-Empirical Truth-Claims
5. Acceptability
6. Self-Test No. 11
7. Questions for Discussion
8. Assessing the Acceptability of Premises
9. Some Particular Fallacies
10. 1. Begging the Question
    2. Inconsistency
    3. Equivocation
    4. False Dichotomy
11. Self-Test No. 12
12. Questions for Discussion

Chapter 7: Assessing Relevance

1. The Criterion of Relevance
2. Recognizing Irrelevant Premises
3. Appeals to Authority (1)
4. Some Particular Fallacies
5. 1. Ad Hominem
   2. Tu Quoque
   3. Straw Man
6. Self-Test No. 13
7. Questions for Discussion

Chapter 8: Assessing Adequacy

1. The Criterion of Adequacy
2. Appeals to Authority (2)
3. Appeals to Anecdotal Evidence
4. Appeals to Ignorance
5. The Slippery Slope Fallacy
6. Causal Fallacies
7. 1. Post Hoc
   2. Confusing Cause and Effect
   3. Common Cause
8. Self-Test No. 14
9. Questions for Discussion

Chapter 9: Deductive Reasoning

1. The Nature of Deductive Reasoning
2. Truth-Functional Statements
3. Formal Validity and Soundness
4. Valid Argument Forms
5. Formal Invalidity
6. Self-Test No. 15
7. Questions for Discussion

Chapter 10: Inductive Reasoning

1. The Nature of Inductive Reasoning
2. Inductive Generalization
3. Statistical Syllogism
4. Induction by Confirmation
5. Analogical Reasoning
6. Self-Test No. 16
7. Questions for Discussion

Chapter 11: Arguing Back

1. Explaining the Weakness
2. Counter-Examples
3. Absurd Examples
4. Counter-Arguments
5. Self-Test No. 17
6. Questions for Discussion

Chapter 12: Irrational Techniques of Persuasion

1. Loaded Terms
2. Vague Terms
3. Loaded Questions
4. False Confidence
5. Selectivity
6. Misleading Statistics
7. Humor
8. Red Herring
9. Guilt by Association
10. Persuasive Redefinition
11. Self-Test No. 18
12. Questions for Discussion

Appendix: Answers to Self-Tests

Glossary

Index