Educational Testing & Measurement Revised and updated edition of the reader-friendly, classroom-relevant introduction to testing and assessment, designed for educators to meet today’s challenges in measuring student progress Educational Testing and Measurement, Twelfth Edition, is a revised and updated practical resource that will enhance assessment literacy to help prepare current and prospective teachers to navigate today’s changing world of educational testing and assessment. It describes the classroom impact of national and key state-level policy changes that drive the ongoing changes in the usage of both teacher-made and standardized tests and assessments. Expanding on previous editions, the book: Explains test and measurement content in a nonintimidating and unique manner Clarifies how formative assessment can help integrate instruction and assessment on a day-day basis in the classroom, and the roles of interim/benchmark and summative assessment Describes the practical, day-to-day issues related to the development, scoring and interpretation of formative assessment results Presents both sides of the various controversies around educational testing and assessment to inform readers sufficiently to form their own opinions Uses a friendly, conversational style to enhance the emphasis on the application of theory Provides sufficient theoretical background, without oversimplifying, for readers to understand the statistical and psychometric foundations of measurement New content in the twelfth edition: Includes the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on learning and assessment Expands coverage of formative, interim/benchmark and summative assessment Introduces Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) and explains how MTSS both integrates with and expands upon Response to Instruction/Intervention (RTI) Describes changes to assessment practice driven by the “Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)” (replacing No Child Left Behind Act, or NCLB), and state academic standards Includes examples illustrating the development, usage and interpretation of assessment results in today’s classrooms Includes an updated instructor’s manual with an expanded item bank, and links to on-line resources to expand upon the text presentation in key areas (e.g., formative assessments standardized testing, measuring behavioral, social, and emotional development) Educational Testing and Measurement, Twelfth Edition presents a balanced perspective of educational testing and assessment, with a unique approach to descriptive statistics and psychometrics (validity, reliability, and fairness).

Table of Contents:
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Contemporary Educational Testing, Assessment, and Measurement 1 Tests and Assessments: Their Potential 2 Test, Assessment, or Assessment Process? 3 Is It a Test or an Assessment? 3 The Assessment Process 4 Tests are Only Tools: A Video Beats a Photo 5 Why We Developed This Text: Improving Assessment Literacy and Enhancing Test Usefulness 6 Assessment Literacy 6 Enhancing Test Usefulness 7 Technical Adequacy (Is It Well-constructed?) 7 Test User Competency 9 Matching the Test’s Intended Purposes: Specific Content and Timing (Summative, Formative and Interim Assessments) 9 Matching the Test to the Population 13 Test Results and Diversity Considerations 15 Types of Tests/Assessments 16 Objective, Essay, and Performance/Portfolio Tests/Assessments 16 Teacher-Made and Standardized Tests 17 Norm-Referenced Tests (NRTs) and Criterion-Referenced Tests (CRTs) 18 Curriculum-Based Measurements (CBMs) 18 Effects on the Classroom Teacher 19 About the Text 21 What If You Are “No Good in Math”? 22 Summary 22 For Discussion and Practice 23 Chapter 2 National Developments: Impact on Classroom Assessment and Measurement 24 COVID-19: Impact on K–12 Education 26 Federal and State Education Initiatives: A Brief Review 26 Education Reform Initiatives 27 Regular Education Reform 27 Special Education Reform 29 Regular and Special Education Reform Merge: IDEIA, NCLB and ESSA 30 Standards-Based Reform 31 Current Status of the Common Core State Standards (ccss) 34 Updates About Other Trends 34 Online and Computer-Adaptive Achievement Testing and COVID–19 35 Globalization and International Competitiveness 36 Competency Testing for Teachers 36 Teacher Evaluation Based on Student Test Scores: Value-Added Models (VAM) 37 Increased Interest from Professional Groups 38 A Professional Association–Book Publisher Information Initiative 38 Summary 39 For Discussion and Practice 40 Chapter 3 the Whole Child, Mtss, and Rti 42 What Is the “Whole Child” Approach? 43 What Is MTSS? 44 The Three Tiers of MTSS 44 What Is the History of MTSS? 46 Is MTSS Just Another Fad? 46 What Is RTI? 47 How New Is RTI? 47 How Is RTI Supposed to Help Students and Schools? 48 RTI Definitions, Components, and Approaches 49 RTI Definitions 49 RTI Components 49 Examples: Progress Monitoring with CBM Probes 53 RTI Approaches 55 Standard Protocol Approach (SP) 55 Problem-Solving Approach (PS) 56 Some Potential Benefits of RTI 56 RTI: The Promise and Some Controversies 57 Technical Issues: Reliability, Validity Evidence, and Fairness 58 Implementation Issues 58 Summary 59 For Discussion and Practice 61 Chapter 4 Why and How We Test: Educational Decision Making 62 Assessment, Accountability, and the Classroom Teacher 64 Formative and Summative Assessments: Special Learners in the Regular Curriculum 64 Types of Educational Decisions 66 Instructional Decisions 66 Grading and Marking Decisions 66 Diagnostic Decisions 67 Selection Decisions 68 Placement Decisions 68 Counseling and Guidance Decisions 68 Program or Curriculum Decisions 68 Administrative Policy Decisions 68 HowWeMeasure:APinchofSalt 69 “Pinching” in the Classroom 70 “What” to Measure: The Purpose of Testing 71 How to Measure 72 Written Test Varieties 72 Summary 73 For Discussion and Practice 74 Chapter 5 Norm- and Criterion-referenced Tests, Content Validity Evidence and Goals And Objectives 75 Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests 76 What Type of Information Do You Need? 76 What Is the Problem? 78 Comparing NRTs and CRTs 80 Differences In The Construction of NRTs and CRTs 81 NRTs, CRTs, and Linguistic and Cultural Diversity 81 NRTs, CRTs, and Validity Evidence 83 A Three-Stage Model of Classroom Measurement 84 Why Objectives? Why Not Just Write Test Items? 85 Where Do Goals Come From? 87 Behavioral and Expressive Objectives and General Goals 88 Can Instructional Objectives Make a Teacher’s Job Easier? 90 Summary 92 For Discussion and Practice 93 Chapter 6 Assessing Learning Outcomes 95 Writing Instructional Objectives 96 Identifying Learning Outcomes 96 Identifying Observable and Directly Measurable Learning Outcomes 97 Stating Conditions 98 Stating Criterion Levels 98 Keeping It Simple and Straightforward 99 Matching Test Items to Instructional Objectives 100 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives 102 Cognitive Domain 102 Affective Domain 105 The Psychomotor Domain 107 The Test Blueprint 108 Content Outline 109 Categories 110 Number of Items 110 Functions 111 Summary 112 For Discussion and Practice 113 Chapter 7 Writing Objective Test Items 115 Which Format? 116 True–False Items 117 Suggestions for Writing True–False Items 119 Matching Items 120 Faults Inherent in Matching Items 120 Suggestions for Writing Matching Items 123 Multiple-Choice Items 123 Higher-Level Multiple-Choice Questions 128 Suggestions for Writing Multiple-Choice Items 132 Completion Items 132 Suggestions for Writing Completion Items 134 Gender and Racial/Ethnic Bias in Test Items 135 Guidelines for Writing Test Items 136 Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Objective Item Formats 137 True–False Tests 137 Matching Tests 138 Multiple-Choice Tests 138 Completion Tests 138 Summary 139 For Discussion and Practice 139 Chapter 8 Writing Essay Test Items 141 What Is An Essay Item? 142 Essay Items Should Measure Complex Cognitive Skills or Processes 143 Essay Items: Extended or Restricted Response 144 Examples of Restricted Response Essays 145 Pros and Cons of Essay Items 147 Advantages of the Essay Item 147 Disadvantages of the Essay Item 147 Suggestions for Writing Essay Items 148 Scoring Essay Questions 149 Scoring Extended Response and Higher-Level Questions 151 General Essay Scoring Suggestions 155 Assessing Knowledge Organization 156 Open-Book Questions and Exams 158 Some Open-Book Techniques 159 Guidelines for Planning Essays, Knowledge Organization, and Open-Book Questions and Exams 162 Summary 163 For Discussion and Practice 164 Chapter 9 Performance-based Assessment 165 Debriefing 217 Debriefing Guidelines 217 The process of Evaluating Classroom Achievement 218 Summary 219 For Discussion and Practice 221 Performance Tests: Direct Measures of Competence 166 Performance Tests Can Assess Processes and Products 166 Performance Tests Can Be Embedded in Lessons 167 Performance Tests Can Assess Affective and Social Skills 167 Developing Performance Assessments for Your Learners 169 Step 1: Deciding What to Test 169 Step 2: Designing the Assessment Context 171 Step 3: Specifying the Scoring Rubrics 174 Step 4: Specifying Testing Constraints 179 A Final Word 180 Summary 181 For Discussion and Practice 182 Chapter 10 Portfolio Assessment 183 What Is a Portfolio? 184 Purposes for the Portfolio 184 Ensuring the Validity Evidence of the Portfolio 185 Developing Portfolio Assessments 186 Step 1: Deciding on the Purposes for a Portfolio 186 Step 2: Identifying Relevant Skills and Dispositions 186 Step 3: Deciding Who Will Plan the Portfolio 186 Step 4: Deciding Which Products to Put in the Portfolio and How Many Samples of Each Product 187 Step 5: Building the Portfolio Rubrics 188 Step 6: Developing a Procedure to Aggregate All Portfolio Ratings 193 Step 7: Determining the Logistics 194 Summary 197 For Discussion and Practice 198 Chapter 11 Administering, Analyzing, And Improving Teacher-made Tests 199 Assembling, Administering, and Scoring the Test 200 Packaging the Paper-and-Pencil or Online Test 200 Check Test Directions 201 Proofread the Test 202 Reproducing the Test 202 Administering the Test 202 Scoring the Test 204 Analyzing the Test 205 Quantitative Item Analysis 205 Qualitative Item Analysis 212 Item Analysis Modifications for the Criterion-Referenced Test 212 Chapter 12 Marks and Marking Systems 222 What Is the Purpose of a Mark? 223 Why Be Concerned about Marking? 223 What Should a Mark Reflect? 223 Marking Systems 225 Types of Comparisons 225 Types of Symbols 229 Combining and Weighting The Components of a Mark 230 Who Is the Better Teacher? 231 Combining Grades into a Single Mark 232 Practical Approaches to Equating Before Weighting in the Busy Classroom 235 Front-End Equating 235 Back-End Equating 237 Summary 238 For Discussion and Practice 239 Chapter 13 Summarizing Data and Measures Of Central Tendency 240 What Are Statistics? 241 Why Use Statistics? 242 Tabulating Frequency Data 242 The List 243 The Simple Frequency Distribution 244 The Grouped Frequency Distribution 245 Steps in Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution 246 Graphing Data 248 The Bar Graph, or Histogram 249 The Frequency Polygon 250 The Smooth Curve 252 Measures of Central Tendency 255 The Mean 255 The Median 257 The Mode 261 The Measures of Central Tendency in Various Distributions 262 Summary 264 For Discussion and Practice 265 Chapter 14 Variability, the Normal Distribution, and Converted Scores 267 The Range 268 The Semi-Interquartile Range (SIQR) 269 The Standard Deviation 270 The Deviation Score Method for Computing the Standard Deviation 273 The Raw Score Method for Computing the Standard Deviation 274 The Normal Distribution 276 Properties of the Normal Distribution 277 Converted Scores 279 z-Scores 282 T-Scores 286 Summary 287 For Discussion and Practice 287 Chapter 15 Correlation 289 The Correlation Coefficient 291 Strength of a Correlation 291 Direction of a Correlation 291 Scatterplots 292 Where Does r Come From? 294 Causality 295 Other Interpretive Cautions 296 Summary 299 For Discussion and Practice 300 Chapter 16 Validity Evidence 301 Establishing Validity Evidence: Contrasting Approaches 302 Do We Have to Evaluate Validity Evidence? 303 When Should Validity Evidence Be Evaluated? 303 Types of Validity Evidence 304 Content Validity Evidence 304 Criterion-Related Validity Evidence 305 Construct Validity Evidence 307 What Have We Been Saying? A Review 307 Interpreting Validity Coefficients 310 Content Validity Evidence 310 Concurrent and Predictive Validity Evidence 310 Summary 314 For Discussion and Practice 315 Chapter 17 Reliability 316 Methods of Estimating Score Reliability Evidence 317 Test–Retest or Stability 317 Alternate Forms or Equivalence 318 Internal Consistency 318 Interpreting Reliability Coefficients 321 Summary 324 For Discussion and Practice 325 Chapter 18 Accuracy and Error 327 Error—What Is It? 328 The Standard Error of Measurement 329 Using the Standard Error of Measurement 330 More Applications 333 Standard Deviation or Standard Error of Measurement? 335 Why All the Fuss About Error? 336 Error Within Test-Takers 336 Error Within the Test 336 Error in Test Administration 337 Error in Scoring 337 Sources of Error Influencing Various Reliability Coefficients 338 Test–Retest 338 Alternate Forms 338 Internal Consistency 339 Band Interpretation 340 Steps: Band Interpretation 341 List Data 341 Determine S m 341 Add and Subtract S m 341 Graph the Results 341 Interpret the Bands 342 AFinalWord 344 Summary 344 For Discussion and Practice 346 Chapter 19 Standardized Tests 347 Standardized, High-Stakes Testing: A Brief History 348 What Is a Standardized Test? 349 Do Test Stimuli, Administration, and Scoring Have to Be Standardized? 350 Standardized Testing: Effects of Accommodations and Alternative Assessments 351 Uses of Standardized Achievement Tests 352 Will Performance and Portfolio Assessment Make Standardized Tests Obsolete? 352 Administering Standardized Tests 353 Types of Scores Offered for Standardized Achievement Tests 355 Grade Equivalents 355 Age Equivalents 356 Percentile Ranks 357 Standard Scores 357 Advantages and Disadvantages of Standard or Scale Scores 359 The Norms Table 359 Interpreting a Norms Table 360 Summary 362 For Discussion and Practice 363 Chapter 20 Interpreting Summative Standardized Test Scores 365 Test-Related Factors That Affect Interpretation 366 Does the Test Have Acceptable Score Reliability and Criterion-related Validity Evidence? 366 Does the Test Have Content Validity Evidence? 367 Is the Norm Group an Appropriate Match to Your Class? 367 Were Standardized Administration Procedures Followed? 368 Student-Related Factors That Affect Interpretation 369 Linguistic and Cultural 369 Age, Gender, and Development 370 Motivational 371 Emotional State on the Test Day 371 Disabilities 371 Aptitude 371 Aptitude–Achievement Discrepancies 374 Interpreting Standardized Tests: Parent–Teacher Conferences and Educational Decision Making 377 An Example: Pressure to Change an Educational Placement 377 Interpreting Standardized Tests: Score Reports From Publishers 381 More Examples: Interpreting Reports from Test Publishers 387 Scenario #1: Based on Figure 20.5 387 Scenario #2: Based on Figure 20.6 387 Authors’ Responses 387 Summary 389 For Discussion and Practice 389 Chapter 21 Types of Standardized Tests 391 Summative Standardized Achievement Tests 392 Achievement Test Batteries, or Survey Batteries 393 Single-Subject Achievement Tests 394 Diagnostic Achievement Tests 394 Standardized Academic Aptitude Tests 394 The History of Academic Aptitude Testing 395 Stability of IQ Scores 396 What Do IQ Tests Predict? 396 Individually Administered Academic Aptitude Tests 397 Group-Administered Academic Aptitude Tests 398 Standardized Personality Assessment Instruments 398 What Is Personality? 399 Objective Personality Tests 400 Projective Personality Tests 401 Summary 401 For Discussion and Practice 402 Chapter 22 In the Classroom: a Summary Dialogue 403 Part 1: The New Teacher and the Experienced Teacher 403 Part 2: Another Experienced Teacher Joins in 407 Part 3: The Principal Joins in 408 Appendix a Math Skills Review A- 1 Appendix B Answers for Discussion Or Practice Questions A- 7 References R- 1 Index I- 1