Discover the necessary materials for building better and cheaper batteries for a sustainable future The search for renewable energy sources is one of the most vital steps towards a sustainable future. The rapid development of new energy technology has placed considerable pressure on the production of rechargeable batteries in recent years. Electrode materials, which provide the “heart” of the rechargeable battery, are therefore necessarily the focus of any efforts to produce cheaper, more and more sustainable battery-powered systems. Electrode Materials in Energy Storage Technologies provides a comprehensive overview of all key electrode materials for rechargeable batteries. Beginning with an introduction to rechargeable battery technology, it moves to analysis of specific systems. Complete with an in-depth understanding of essential electrochemical mechanisms, it’s an indispensable guide to a core aspect of the ongoing energy revolution. Electrode Materials in Energy Storage Technologies readers will also find: A focus on design, structure-property relationships, and applications of electrode materials Detailed discussion of materials including lithium, sodium, potassium, zinc, and more Numerous practical applications with an emphasis on safety, sustainability, and market trends Electrode Materials in Energy Storage Technologies is ideal for material scientists and chemists of all kinds.

Table of Contents:
About the Editor xiii Preface xv 1 Research Developments on Lithium-Ion Batteries 1 lishan Yang, Da Xiong, Yangfan li, Xiang Wang, Boyao Gan, and Xinkang li Outline 1 1.1 Polyanion Cathodes 1 1.1.1 Lithium Iron Phosphate 2 1.1.2 Lithium Manganese Iron Phosphate 3 1.2 Layered Oxide Cathodes 4 1.3 Spinel Structure Cathodes 8 1.4 Anode Materials 9 1.5 Cell Technology 10 1.5.1 Battery Cells 10 1.5.2 Cell Integration Technology 13 1.6 Electrolyte 13 1.7 Binders 15 1.8 Outlook 16 References 18 2 Evaluation of Sodium-Ion Battery: Fast-Charging Next Generation 25 Muhammad Mamoor and Liqiang Xu 2.1 Motivation for Exploring Na-Ion Batteries 25 2.2 Fundamental of SIBs 27 2.3 Cathode Materials: Strategies for Improvement 29 2.3.1 Layered Oxides 29 2.3.1.1 Challenges – Structure Characteristic and Failure Mechanism 29 2.3.1.2 Honeycomb-Ordered Superlattice Structure: Crystal Parameter Modulation 31 2.3.2 Recent Progress of Phosphate-Based Polyanion 33 2.3.2.1 Tuning Voltage and Capacity of NASICON 33 2.3.3 Optimizing Composition and Morphology: Prussian Blue Analog 37 2.3.4 Exploring Sustainable Alternatives: Organic Cathodes 38 2.4 Performance Optimization Strategies of Different Electrolytes for Fast Charging 40 2.4.1 Electrolyte Desolvation Strategies 41 2.4.2 Electrode–Electrolyte Interphase 43 2.4.3 Organic Electrolyte 48 2.5 Electrolyte Additives 51 2.5.1 Specific Groups of Additives 51 2.6 Performance Optimization Strategies for Fast-Charging Anode Materials 66 2.6.1 Porous Engineering 67 2.6.2 Nanostructuring 69 2.6.2.1 Templated-Assisted Strategies 71 2.6.3 Conductive Coating and Modification 75 2.6.4 Managing Volume Expansion: Alloy-Based Anodes 76 2.6.5 Conversion and Intercalation–Conversion Anode Materials: Balancing Capacity and Cyclability 78 2.6.6 2D Materials: Leveraging Unique Structures for Sodium Storage 81 2.7 Anode-Free SIBs: Design and Working Principle 84 2.7.1 Electrochemically Stable Electrolyte 85 2.8 All-Climates Sodium-Ion Batteries 87 2.8.1 Challenges for SIBs at Extreme Low Temperatures 88 2.8.2 Challenges for SIBs at High Temperatures 90 2.9 Na-Powered Progress: The Rise of Commercial Sodium-Ion Cells 91 2.9.1 Electrochemical Systems 92 2.9.2 The Price of Progress: SIB Baseline Cost Framework Study 93 2.9.3 SIB Cost Reduction: Aiming for $0.05 kWh − 1 94 2.10 Summary and Prospect 94 References 97 3 Research Development on Potassium-Ion Batteries and Potassium–Sulfur Batteries 105 Yanyan He, Junhui Li, and Yuxin Dai 3.1 Introduction to Potassium-Ion Batteries 105 3.1.1 A Brief History of Potassium-Ion Battery Development 105 3.1.2 Aqueous Potassium-Ion Batteries 106 3.2 The Composition and Working Principle of Potassium-Ion Batteries 107 3.3 Cathode Materials for Potassium-Ion Batteries 109 3.3.1 Layered Metal Oxides 110 3.3.1.1 Challenges and Strategies 113 3.3.1.2 Chromium-Based Metal Oxide 113 3.3.1.3 Manganese-Based Metal Oxides 114 3.3.1.4 Cobalt-Based Metal Oxide 118 3.3.2 Polyanionic Compounds 120 3.3.2.1 Challenges and Strategies 121 3.3.2.2 Phosphates 121 3.3.2.3 Fluorophosphates 124 3.3.2.4 Pyrophosphates 127 3.3.2.5 Oxyphosphates 129 3.3.2.6 Sulfates and Fluorosulfates 132 3.3.3 Prussian Blue Analog 133 3.3.3.1 Challenges and Strategies 134 3.3.3.2 KFeFe-Prussian Blue Analogs 134 3.3.3.3 KMnFe-Prussian Blue Analogs 137 3.3.3.4 Other Prussian Blue Analogs 138 3.3.4 Organic Cathode Materials 139 3.3.4.1 Challenges and Strategies 139 3.3.4.2 Organic Small Molecules and Polymers 140 3.4 Anode Materials for Potassium-Ion Batteries 143 3.4.1 Intercalation-Type Anodes 144 3.4.1.1 Challenges and Strategies 144 3.4.1.2 Graphitic Carbon Materials 145 3.4.1.3 Non-graphitic Carbon Materials 146 3.4.1.4 Ti-Based Materials 149 3.4.2 Alloying Reaction-Type Anodes 151 3.4.2.1 Challenges and Strategies 152 3.4.2.2 P-Based Anodes 152 3.4.2.3 Sn-Based Anodes 153 3.4.2.4 Sb-Based Anodes 155 3.4.2.5 Bi-Based Anodes 157 3.4.2.6 Si-Based Anodes 160 3.4.2.7 Ge-Based Anodes 161 3.4.3 Conversion Reaction-Type Anodes 163 3.4.3.1 Challenges and Strategies 163 3.4.3.2 Metal Oxides 163 3.4.3.3 Metal Phosphides 164 3.4.3.4 Metal Chalcogenides 170 3.4.4 Organic Anode Materials 186 3.4.4.1 Challenges and Strategies 187 3.4.4.2 Carboxylate Organic Anode Materials 187 3.4.4.3 Organic Anode Materials Based on Framework Compounds 188 3.5 Electrolyte for Potassium-Ion Batteries 189 3.5.1 Challenges and Strategies 189 3.5.2 Water-Based Electrolyte 189 3.5.3 Organic Electrolyte 191 3.5.4 Ionic Electrolyte 192 3.5.5 Solid Electrolyte 193 3.6 Potassium–Sulfur Batteries 194 3.6.1 Composition, Working Mechanism, and Challenges of Potassium–Sulfur Batteries 194 3.6.2 Sulfur Cathodes 195 3.6.3 Anodes 197 3.6.4 Electrolytes 198 References 201 4 The Electrocatalyst Design for Lithium–Sulfur Battery 225 Yueyue Kong, Bin Wang, Lu Wang, and Liqiang Xu 4.1 Background 225 4.2 Brief Introduction of Li–S Batteries 225 4.2.1 The Development History of Li–S Batteries 225 4.2.2 The Overview of Li–S Batteries 226 4.2.3 The Working Principle of Li–S Batteries 227 4.2.4 The Problems and Challenges of Li–S Battery 229 4.3 The Electrocatalyst Design Strategies 230 4.3.1 Micro/Nanostructure Design 230 4.3.2 Defect Engineering 234 4.3.3 Composition and Structural Manipulation 236 4.3.4 Heterojunction Construction 238 4.3.5 Alloy Electrocatalyst 242 4.3.6 Other Electrocatalysts 244 4.3.6.1 MOF Electrocatalysts 244 4.3.6.2 Polyoxometalate (POM) Electrocatalysts 245 4.3.6.3 Single-Atom (SA) Electrocatalysts 247 4.4 Lithium Anode Protection 249 4.4.1 Electrolyte Regulation 249 4.4.2 Artificial Modification Layer on Lithium Anode 252 4.5 In situ Characterization Method for Li–S Batteries 252 4.5.1 In situ Spectroscopy Characterization 253 4.5.1.1 In situ Raman Characterization 253 4.5.1.2 In situ Ultraviolet–Visible Spectroscopy (UV–vis) Characterization 254 4.5.1.3 In situ Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) Characterization 255 4.5.2 In situ X-Ray Characterization 256 4.5.2.1 In situ X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Characterization 256 4.5.2.2 In situ X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS) Characterization 257 4.5.3 In situ Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) Characterization 258 4.5.4 In situ Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) Characterization 260 4.5.5 In situ Stress Monitoring Characterization 261 4.6 Practical Application Research of Li–S Batteries 262 4.6.1 Pouch-Type Li–S Battery 263 4.6.2 High- and Low-Temperature Electrochemical Performance 265 4.7 Conclusion and Prospect 266 References 266 5 Room Temperature Sodium–Sulfur Batteries: Challenges and Progress 277 Mingyue Wang, Nana Wang, and Zhongchao Bai 5.1 Introduction 277 5.2 History of Na–S Batteries 278 5.3 Reaction Mechanism of Room Temperature Na–S Batteries 279 5.3.1 Reaction Mechanisms in Ether-Based Electrolytes 279 5.3.2 Reaction Mechanisms in Carbonate-Based Electrolytes 281 5.4 Challenges of Room Temperature Na–S Batteries 281 5.5 Progress on Room Temperature Na–S Batteries 283 5.5.1 Cathodes 283 5.5.1.1 Carbon-S Cathodes 283 5.5.1.2 Polymer-S Cathodes 284 5.5.1.3 Electrocatalyst-Enhanced S Cathode 285 5.5.2 Anodes 288 5.5.3 Separators 288 5.5.4 Electrolytes 290 5.5.4.1 Liquid Electrolytes (LEs) 290 5.5.4.2 Gel Polymer Electrolytes (GPEs) 292 5.5.4.3 Solid-State Electrolytes (SSEs) 292 5.6 Summary and Outlook 293 References 295 6 Zinc-Ion Rechargeable Battery 297 Guangmeng Qu and Liqiang Xu 6.1 Overview of Aqueous Zinc-Ion Battery 297 6.2 Introduction 298 6.2.1 Development History 298 6.2.2 Structure and Components of AZIBs 299 6.2.3 Energy Storage Mechanism 301 6.3 Cathode Materials for AZIBs 305 6.3.1 Vanadium-Based Compound Cathode Materials 305 6.3.1.1 Layered Vanadium-Based Compound 306 6.3.1.2 Vanadium-Based Compounds with Tunnel Structure 308 6.3.1.3 Vanadium-Based Compounds with Spinel Structure 310 6.3.1.4 Polyanion-Type Vanadium-Based Compounds 310 6.3.1.5 Modification Strategy of Vanadium-Based Cathode Materials 311 6.3.2 Manganese-Based Oxide Cathode Materials 319 6.3.2.1 α-MnO2 319 6.3.2.2 β-MnO2 320 6.3.2.3 γ-MnO2 320 6.3.2.4 δ-MnO2 321 6.3.2.5 λ-MnO2 321 6.3.2.6 ε-MnO2 322 6.3.2.7 Other Manganese-Based Compounds 322 6.3.2.8 Modification Strategy of Mn-Based Oxide Cathode Materials 323 6.3.3 Prussian Blue Analogs (PBAs) Cathode Materials in Zinc-Ion Batteries 332 6.3.3.1 Synthesis Methods for PBA Cathode Materials 333 6.3.3.2 Optimization Strategy of PBA Cathode Materials 334 6.3.4 Halogen-Based (Iodine/Bromine) Cathode Materials for AZIBs 336 6.3.4.1 Iodine-Based Cathode Materials for AZIBs 336 6.3.4.2 Bromine-Based Cathode Materials for AZIBs 340 6.3.5 Organic Compounds Cathode Materials for AZIBs 343 6.3.5.1 Conductive Polymers 343 6.3.5.2 Carbonyl Compounds 346 6.3.5.3 Imine Compounds 347 6.3.5.4 Nitroxide Radicals Compounds 347 6.3.5.5 COFs and MOFs 348 6.4 Zinc Metal Anode Materials 349 6.4.1 Challenges and Issues of Zinc Anodes in Aqueous Zinc-Ion Batteries 350 6.4.1.1 Zinc Deposition and Dendrite Growth 350 6.4.1.2 Water-Induced Interface Side Reactions 352 6.4.2 Zinc Anode Protection Strategies 353 6.4.2.1 Surface-Coating Modification of Zinc Anodes 353 6.4.2.2 3D Structure Design of Zinc Metal Anode Materials 354 6.4.2.3 Zinc Alloy Anodes 355 6.4.2.4 Electrolyte Design to Optimize Zinc Anode 356 6.5 Summary and Future Outlook 358 References 359 Index 367