In-depth reference showing readers how to maximize hydrocarbon recovery through emerging technologies and energy transition applications
Enhanced Recovery Processes serves as a comprehensive reference for readers aiming to maximize hydrocarbon recovery from reservoirs that are close to exhausting their primary and secondary production methods, addressing a changing paradigm not only in terms of evolving and emerging technologies but also in the era of energy transition. The book includes coverage of recovery enhancement techniques in both conventional and unconventional reservoirs, as well as the novel techniques developed in the oil and gas industry. In this book, we use the term Enhanced Recovery (ER) in a broader sense than its traditional usage. While Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) remains an important component, our definition of ER encompasses enhanced hydrocarbon recovery as well as other innovative recovery strategies that align with the evolving needs of the energy transition. By adopting ER as an umbrella concept, we emphasize not only improved methods for extracting hydrocarbons but also emerging technologies and practices that contribute to efficiency, sustainability, and the integration of low-carbon solutions into the energy system.
In this book, readers will learn how Enhanced Recovery (EOR) processes have the potential to be a bridge technology leading to the energy transition, enabling continued oil production while reducing its environmental impact. By achieving this dual objective, EOR processes help countries not only meet energy demand, but also satisfy emission/climate goals. The authors show how this approach is particularly important in the world where oil production cannot stop without important ramifications where instant/very short-term switching to renewables is not feasible.
Enhanced Recovery Processes includes information on:
- Cold heavy oil production, covering inert gas injection (IGI) and gravity drainage approaches, heavy oil polymers, and foamy oil
- Chemical enhanced recovery, covering wettability and fluid flow in reservoir rocks, wettability alteration floods, polymer floods, and alkali flooding
- Gas injection methods, covering cyclic gas injection, miscible and immiscible CO2 and hydrocarbon gas flooding, and flue gas injection
- Alternative/novel methods including sound waves, ultrasonic high frequency and seismic low frequency, pressure pulsing, and solar/thermal
- Synergistic application of EOR techniques for carbon capture, utilization and storage
Delivering state-of-the-art technology applications and research, Enhanced Recovery Processes is a timely, essential read on the subject for all researchers and practitioners in the oil and gas industry as well as the mining, utility, and energy industries.
Table of Contents:
Contents
Contributors xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
Bios xix
1 Introduction to Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) 1
Jorge Saldana
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Current Status of Enhanced Recovery in Oil and Gas Industry 2
1.3 Fundamental Concepts and Reservoir Characterization Techniques for
EOR Methods 7
1.4 EOR and the Energy Transition to Renewables 9
1.5 Summary 11
References 12
2 Advances in Cold Heavy Oil Production 17
Jorge Saldana
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Fundamental Concepts 18
2.3 Theories and Methods 19
2.3.1 Cold Heavy Oil Production with Sand 20
2.3.2 IGI and Gravity Drainage Approaches 22
2.3.3 Heavy Oil Polymers 29
2.3.4 Alkali-surfactant-polymer (ASP) Options 31
2.3.5 Foamy Oil 34
2.4 Case Studies and Applications 36
2.5 AI Applications 45
2.6 Applications Toward Net Zero/Energy Transition and Economics 51
2.7 Summary and Conclusions 60
2.8 Nomenclature 63
References 64
3 Waterflooding 73
Jorge Saldana
3.1 Introduction 73
3.2 Fundamental Concepts 74
3.3 Theories and Methods 78
3.3.1 Waterflooding 79
3.3.2 Layering and Implications 80
3.3.3 Low-salinity Waterflooding 83
3.3.4 Low-salinity Polymer Flooding 88
3.3.5 Carbonated Water Injection 93
3.3.6 Water Alternating Gas 96
3.4 Case Studies and Applications 103
3.5 AI Applications 107
3.6 Applications Toward Net Zero/Energy Transition and Economics 113
3.7 Summary and Conclusions 117
3.8 Nomenclature 119
References 120
4 Chemical Enhanced Recovery 131
Kishore K. Mohanty and Krishna Panthi
4.1 Introduction 131
4.2 Mechanisms of Enhancing Oil Recovery 132
4.3 Wettability and Fluid Flow in Reservoir Rocks 135
4.3.1 Origin of Reservoir Wettability 135
4.3.2 The Effect of Wettability on Fluid Flow in Porous Rocks 136
4.4 Wettability Alteration Flood 140
4.4.1 Low-salinity Waterflood 140
4.4.2 Surfactant-mediated Wettability Alteration Flood 149
4.5 Polymer Flood 152
4.5.1 Types of Polymers 153
4.5.2 Principles of Polymer Flood 154
4.5.3 Polymer Floods: Laboratory Evaluation 155
4.5.4 Polymer Floods: Field Experience 156
4.6 Alkali Flood 158
4.6.1 Mechanisms 158
4.6.2 Commonly Used Alkalis and Reactions 158
4.6.3 Example of Alkaline Corefloods for a Light Oil 160
4.6.4 Example of Alkaline Corefloods for a Heavy Oil 160
4.6.5 Summary of Alkaline Floods 162
4.7 Surfactant Flood 165
4.7.1 Surfactants 165
4.7.2 Mechanism of Surfactant Flood 166
4.7.3 Surfactant Phase Behavior 166
4.7.4 SP Flood 167
4.7.5 ASP Flood 168
4.7.6 Surfactant Corefloods 169
4.7.7 Current Challenges for Surfactant Floods 175
4.7.8 Chemical EOR in Fractured Carbonates 178
4.7.9 Chemical EOR in Oil Shales 185
4.8 ACP Flood 186
4.8.1 Example of Heavy Oil ACP Floods 188
4.8.2 Summary 190
4.9 Nanoparticle EOR 190
4.9.1 Corefloods using Nanoparticles 192
4.10 Case Studies/Applications 194
4.10.1 Case Study of Mangala Oil Field Polymer and ASP Floods (Sandstone
Reservoir) 194
4.10.2 Case Study of Al-Shaheen Oil Field (Carbonate Reservoir) 200
4.11 AI Applications 200
4.12 Applications Toward Net Zero/Energy Transition 201
4.13 Environmental and Economic Aspects 201
4.14 Summary and Conclusions 202
4.15 Nomenclature 203
References 203
5 Gas Injection Methods 225
Ekrem Alagoz
5.1 Introduction 225
5.2 Fundamental Concepts and Screening Criteria 227
5.2.1 Reservoir Depth 230
5.2.2 Temperature 230
5.2.3 Pressure 230
5.2.4 Porosity and Permeability 230
5.3 Gas Injection Methods 231
5.3.1 Cyclic Gas Injection 232
5.3.2 Miscible CO2 Flooding 239
5.3.3 Immiscible CO2 Flooding 244
5.3.4 Flue Gas Injection 249
5.4 Application of AI in Gas Injection 252
5.4.1 Gas Injection Well Location Optimization Using AI 253
5.4.2 Combination of ANN and GA to Optimize Gas Injection 255
5.4.3 Use of Hybrid-ANFIS Calculate MMP of CO2 257
5.4.4 Using ML Techniques to Model the IFT of N2/CO2 Mixture +
n-Alkanes 257
5.5 Case Studies 261
5.5.1 Application of CGI in Conventional Oil Reservoirs 262
5.5.2 CGI Applications in Unconventional Oil Reservoirs 264
5.5.3 Field Experience of Miscible CO2 Injection 265
5.6 Conclusion 268
References 268
6 Thermal EOR Methods 275
Jorge Saldana
6.1 Introduction 275
6.2 Fundamental Concepts and Theories 276
6.3 TEOR Methods 278
6.3.1 Steam-based Methods 278
6.3.2 ISC Methods 288
6.3.3 Additives 294
6.3.4 In Situ Conversion Process (ICP) 296
6.4 AI Applications 299
6.5 Applications toward Net-zero/Energy Transition, and Economic
Aspects 302
6.6 Summary and Conclusions 305
6.7 Nomenclature 307
References 308
7 Alternative and Miscellaneous Methods for Enhanced Oil
Recovery 315
Jorge Saldana
7.1 Introduction 315
7.2 Methods 316
7.2.1 Sound Waves 316
7.2.2 Ultrasonic High Frequency 317
7.2.3 Seismic Low Frequency 320
7.2.4 Pressure Pulsing 322
7.2.5 Foam EOR Methods 325
7.2.6 Microbial EOR 328
7.2.7 Solar/Thermal EOR 330
7.2.8 Nuclear Power in EOR 332
7.2.9 In Situ Upgrading Technologies 335
7.3 AI Applications and Environmental Considerations 341
7.4 Summary and Conclusions 345
7.5 Nomenclature 346
References 347
8 Recovery Enhancement in Unconventional Shale Reservoirs 353
Ekrem Alagoz and Baris Tali
8.1 Introduction 353
8.2 EOR Techniques for Shale Reservoirs 354
8.2.1 Enhanced Bacterial Methanogenesis 356
8.2.2 CO2 and N2 Injection 356
8.2.3 Huff-n-Puff Method 362
9 Application of EOR Techniques for Carbon Capture and Storage 393
Bin Yuan, Xiaocong Lyu, Wei Zhang, Gang Huang, and Abhijit Dandekar
9.1 Introduction 393
9.2 CO2 Capture and Transportation 399
9.2.1 CO2 Separation and Capture Technologies 399
9.2.2 CO2 Transportation Technologies 408
9.3 CO2 Sequestration and Leakage 409
9.3.1 Types of CO2 Source 409
9.3.2 Evaluation of CO2 Sequestration Sites 409
9.3.3 CO2 Leakage Mechanisms and Prevention 413
9.4 CO2-EOR Technologies 418
9.4.1 CO2-EOR Mechanisms 418
9.4.2 Methods of CO2-EOR 423
9.4.3 The Role of CO2-EOR in CCUS 425
9.5 Chemical-enhanced CO2-EOR 425
9.5.1 Nanoparticles Enhanced CO2-EOR 425
9.5.2 Micro and Nanobubbles Enhanced CO2-EOR 428
9.6 Stored CO2 Management and Surveillance 431
9.6.1 Potential Issues of Stored CO2 431
9.6.2 Management Strategy of Stored CO2 434
9.6.3 CO2 Surveillance Strategy and Implementation 437
9.7 Summary and Conclusion 443
9.8 Nomenclature 444
References 445
10 Novel EOR Techniques and Future Directions 461
Jorge Saldana
10.1 Introduction 461
10.2 Novel EOR Techniques 463
10.3 EOR in the Energy Transition: Future Directions 471
10.4 Nomenclature 474
References 474
Index 477
