Magnitude and quality of life as well as sustainable human progress inescapably depend on the state of our environment. The environment, in essence, is a common resource of all the living organisms in the biosphere as well as a vivacious basis of the evolution of life on Earth. A sustainable future broods over a sustainable environment—an environment encompassing life-originating, life-supporting, and life-sustaining uniqueness. A deteriorating environment haplessly sets in appalling conditions leading to shrinkage of life and a halt in human progress. The current global environment scenario is extremely dismal. Environmental disruptions, largely owing to anthropogenic activities, are steadily leading to awful climate change. Horribly advancing toward mass extinction in the near or distant future and posing a threat to our Living Planet, the unabatedly ongoing climate change, in fact, is an unprecedented issue of human concern about life in the recorded human history. How to get rid of the environmental mess and resolve environmental issues leading to climate change mitigation is the foremost challenge facing humanity in our times. There are several measures the whole world is resorting to. They are primarily focused on cutting down excessive carbon emissions by means of development of technological alternatives, for example, increasing mechanical efficiencies and ever-more dependence on clean-energy sources. These are of great importance, but there is yet a natural phenomenon that has been, and will unceasingly be, pivotal to maintain climate order of the Earth. For it to phenomenally boost, we need to explore deeper aspects of environmental science. It is the environmental plant physiology that links us with deeper roots of life. Environmental Plant Physiology: Botanical Strategies for a Climate-Smart Planet attempts to assimilate a relatively new subject that helps us understand the very phenomenon of life that persists in the planet’s environment and depends on, and is influenced by, a specific set of operating environmental factors. It is the subject that helps us understand adaptation mechanisms within a variety of habitats as well as the implications of the alterations of environmental factors on the inhabiting organisms, their populations, and communities. Further, this book can also be of vital importance for policy makers and organizations dealing with climate-related issues and committed to the cause of the earth. This book can be instrumental in formulating strategies that can lead us to a climate-smart planet. Features: • Provides ecological basis of environmental plant physiology • Discusses energy, nutrient, water, temperature, allelochemical, and altitude relations of plants • Reviews stress physiology of plants and plants’ adaptations to the changing climate • Examines climate-change effects on plant physiology • Elucidates evolving botanical strategies for a climate-smart planet

Table of Contents:
Contents Preface...............................................................................................................................................xi Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... xiii Author ..............................................................................................................................................xv Chapter 1 Environment and Ecosystems: Physiological Basis of Ecology ...................................1 The Lumenosphere .......................................................................................................1 The Biosphere ...............................................................................................................2 The Organism-Environment Relationships ..................................................................3 Energy and Nutrient Flows through Ecosystems ....................................................4 Food Chains .............................................................................................................5 Food Web .................................................................................................................6 Ecological Pyramids ................................................................................................7 Ecological Pyramid of Numbers ........................................................................7 Ecological Pyramid of Biomass .........................................................................8 Ecological Pyramid of Energy ...........................................................................9 The Sixth Trophic Level ........................................................................................ 10 The Seventh Trophic Level .................................................................................... 10 What Is Environmental Physiology? .......................................................................... 11 Climate and Its Changing Behavior ........................................................................... 12 Scope of Environmental Plant Physiology ................................................................. 13 Applications in Food Production ........................................................................... 13 Environmental Physiology: The Basis for a Climate-Smart Planet ........................... 14 Summary .................................................................................................................... 17 References .................................................................................................................. 18 Websites ...................................................................................................................... 18 Chapter 2 Energy Relations ........................................................................................................ 19 Energy and Life .......................................................................................................... 19 Trophic Diversity in Nature ........................................................................................ 19 The Light of Life ........................................................................................................20 Leaf and Light ............................................................................................................ 21 Leaf-Energy Balance .............................................................................................22 Energy Inputs and Energy Outputs of a Leaf ...................................................24 Net Radiation ....................................................................................................24 Sensible Heat Loss (Conduction and Convection) ............................................25 Latent and Chemical Energy ............................................................................25 Photosynthetic Pathways ............................................................................................26 C3 Photosynthesis ..................................................................................................27 C4 Photosynthesis ..................................................................................................28 CAM Photosynthesis .............................................................................................29 E = mc2 in the Context of Earth’s Ecosystems...........................................................30 Sun–Soil–Plant: The Evolutionary Ladder of Life .................................................... 31 Photosynthesis and Soil Fertilization .................................................................... 32 Energy from Inorganic Molecules ............................................................................. 33 Energy from Organic Molecules ................................................................................ 35 Chemical Composition vis-à-vis Nutrient Requirements ...................................... 35 Herbivory ...............................................................................................................36 Carnivory ...............................................................................................................36 Detritivory ............................................................................................................. 37 Energy Limitations .....................................................................................................38 Optimal Foraging by Animals ..............................................................................38 Optimal Foraging by Plants................................................................................... 39 Energy Flow in the Biosphere .................................................................................... 39 Summary .................................................................................................................... 41 References .................................................................................................................. 42 Websites ...................................................................................................................... 43 Chapter 3 Nutrient Relations ....................................................................................................... 45 The Pedosphere .......................................................................................................... 45 Soil as an Ecosystem .................................................................................................. 45 Diversity of the World’s Soils .....................................................................................46 Soil Types .............................................................................................................. 47 Soil Biodiversity .................................................................................................... 47 Pedodiversity–Biodiversity Relations ....................................................................48 Essential Elements ......................................................................................................49 Sources of Plant Nutrients ..........................................................................................50 Nutrient Availability for Plants .................................................................................. 51 Interactions among Ions ............................................................................................. 51 Cycles in the Soil ........................................................................................................ 53 Ion-Uptake Physiology ...............................................................................................54 Kinetics ..................................................................................................................54 Internal Control ..................................................................................................... 58 Morphological Responses .......................................................................................... 59 Root:Shoot Ratio and Root:Weight Ratio .............................................................. 59 Root Diameter and Root Hairs ..............................................................................60 Root Density and Distribution ...............................................................................60 Soil Microorganisms .................................................................................................. 61 Rhizosphere ........................................................................................................... 61 Impact on Nutrient Uptake .................................................................................... 62 Nitrogen Fixation ................................................................................................... 62 Influence of Environmental Factors ......................................................................63 Mycorrhizas ...........................................................................................................64 Summary ....................................................................................................................65 References ..................................................................................................................66 Websites ...................................................................................................................... 67 Chapter 4 Water Relations ..........................................................................................................69 The Water Planet as Home to Life .............................................................................69 Water Properties Conducive to Life ...........................................................................69 Water Availability to Organisms ................................................................................ 70 Water in Air ........................................................................................................... 70 Water Movement within Water .............................................................................. 71 Water Potential ........................................................................................................... 72 Plant Roots and Water Acquisition............................................................................. 74 Water Relations of Plant Cells .................................................................................... 75 Supply of Water by the Soil ........................................................................................ 76 Water Planet a Climate-Smart Planet.........................................................................77 Summary .................................................................................................................... 78 References .................................................................................................................. 79 Websites ...................................................................................................................... 79 Chapter 5 Temperature Relations ................................................................................................ 81 Microclimatic Variations and Temperatures .............................................................. 81 Atmospheric Trends vis-à-vis Altitudes ..................................................................... 81 Troposphere ...........................................................................................................84 Stratosphere ...........................................................................................................85 Mesosphere ............................................................................................................86 Thermosphere ........................................................................................................86 Exosphere ..............................................................................................................87 Plant–Temperature Relations ......................................................................................87 Ground Color and Temperatures ................................................................................88 Vegetation and Temperatures .....................................................................................88 Slope Aspects and Temperatures ...............................................................................89 Aquatic Environments’ Temperatures ........................................................................89 Photosynthesis in Extreme Temperatures ..................................................................90 Solar Energy–Temperature Interaction ...................................................................... 91 Temperature Regulation by Plants ............................................................................. 91 Arctic and Alpine Plants ....................................................................................... 91 Tropical Alpine Plants ...........................................................................................93 Desert Plants ..........................................................................................................94 Temperature Regulation by Thermogenic Plants ..................................................94 Adaptation to Harsh Environments ............................................................................96 Physiological Strategies for Cooling the Earth ..........................................................97 Summary ....................................................................................................................99 References ................................................................................................................ 100 Websites .................................................................................................................... 101 Chapter 6 Allelochemical Relations ......................................................................................... 103 Competition among Plants ....................................................................................... 103 Defining Competition .......................................................................................... 103 Competition within Plant Populations ................................................................. 104 Asymmetric Competition .................................................................................... 104 Interspecific Competition: Mixed-Species Analysis ........................................... 105 Allelopathy ............................................................................................................... 105 Chemical Interactions among Plants ........................................................................ 106 Nature of Allelopathy ............................................................................................... 107 Allelopathic Plants ................................................................................................... 107 Allelopathy Applications in Agriculture .................................................................. 109 Cropping Systems’ Management ......................................................................... 109 Mulching for Weed Control ................................................................................. 109 Ecologically Healthy Agrochemicals and Microbial Pesticides ......................... 110 Breeding the Allelopathic Cultivars .................................................................... 110 Reducing NO3 Leaching and N2O Pollution........................................................ 111 Allelopathic Mechanisms ......................................................................................... 111 Effect on Soil Ecology ......................................................................................... 111 Effect on Photosynthesis ..................................................................................... 111 Effect on Respiration ........................................................................................... 112 Effect on Enzyme Functions ............................................................................... 113 Influence on Plant-Growth Regulator System ..................................................... 113 Effect on Antioxidant System .............................................................................. 114 Effect on Protein and Nucleic-Acid Synthesis .................................................... 114 Effect on Water and Nutrient Uptake .................................................................. 114 Effect on Cell Division and Elongation ............................................................... 114 Phytosociology for a Greener Planet ........................................................................ 117 Summary .................................................................................................................. 118 References ................................................................................................................ 119 Websites .................................................................................................................... 120 Chapter 7 High-Altitude Physiology ......................................................................................... 121 Altitude Types from Sea Level ................................................................................. 121 High-Altitude Specificities ....................................................................................... 122 Diverse Ecological Niches ................................................................................... 122 Biodiversity .......................................................................................................... 123 Fragility ............................................................................................................... 123 Adaptation Mechanisms ...................................................................................... 125 Marginality .......................................................................................................... 125 Poor Accessibility ................................................................................................ 126 High-Altitude Plant Ecology .................................................................................... 126 Effects of Altitudes on the Physiology of the Plants ................................................ 128 Photosynthesis ..................................................................................................... 128 Respiration ........................................................................................................... 130 Transpiration ........................................................................................................ 130 Chlorophyll Destruction ...................................................................................... 131 Resistance to Ultraviolet Radiation ..................................................................... 131 Frost Resistance ................................................................................................... 132 Water Balance and Avoidance of Desiccation ..................................................... 132 Growth and Development .................................................................................... 133 High Altitudes: Cooling Breeze for Cooling the Mainstream World ...................... 134 Summary .................................................................................................................. 135 References ................................................................................................................ 137 Websites .................................................................................................................... 138 Chapter 8 Stress Physiology ...................................................................................................... 139 Stress to Life as an Inevitable Phenomenon ............................................................. 139 Solar-Radiation Stress .............................................................................................. 140 Temperature Stress ................................................................................................... 141 Effects on Photosynthesis and Respiration.......................................................... 141 Effect on Membranes and Enzymes .................................................................... 141 Effects of Freezing Temperatures........................................................................ 142 Stress of Oxygen Deficiency .................................................................................... 142 Molecular Genetics Aspects of Oxygen-Deficiency Stress ................................. 143 Root Damage in Anoxic Environments ............................................................... 144 Effect of Anoxia-Damaged Roots on Shoots ...................................................... 145 Synthesis of Anaerobic Stress Proteins ............................................................... 145 Salinity Stress ........................................................................................................... 145 Effect on Photosynthesis and Growth ................................................................. 146 Osmotic and Specific Ion Effects ........................................................................ 147 Plants’ Strategies of Saline Stress Management ................................................. 147 Heat Stress ................................................................................................................ 148 Water Deficit and Heat Stress .............................................................................. 148 Effect on Photosynthesis and Respiration ........................................................... 148 Effect on Cell Membrane .................................................................................... 149 Adaptation Mechanisms against Heat Stress ...................................................... 149 Low-Temperature Stress ........................................................................................... 150 Chilling Effects on Cell Membrane .................................................................... 150 Tolerance to Cold Stress ...................................................................................... 151 Pollution Stress on Ecosystems ................................................................................ 153 Heavy-Metal Stress .................................................................................................. 154 Reactive Oxygen Species ..................................................................................... 154 Inactivation of Biomolecules ............................................................................... 155 Primary Stress ..................................................................................................... 155 Secondary Stress ................................................................................................. 155 Signal Transduction ............................................................................................. 155 Effects on Cellular Components .......................................................................... 155 Heavy-Metal Detoxification Methods ................................................................. 155 Vacuolar Compartmentalization.......................................................................... 157 Pollution Stress Impacts on Ecological Processes ................................................... 157 Water Stress .............................................................................................................. 158 The Etiology of Water Stress ............................................................................... 159 Multidimensional Nature of Water Stress ........................................................... 159 Morphological, Anatomical, and Cytological Changes ................................. 160 Photosynthesis ................................................................................................ 160 Protein Synthesis ............................................................................................ 161 Proline Accumulation ..................................................................................... 161 Lipids .............................................................................................................. 162 Mineral Nutrition ............................................................................................ 162 Abscisic Acid Accumulation .......................................................................... 162 Oxidative Stress .............................................................................................. 162 Summary .................................................................................................................. 163 References ................................................................................................................ 164 Websites .................................................................................................................... 166 Chapter 9 Physiological Effects of Climate Change ................................................................. 167 Living in an Age of Climate Change ....................................................................... 167 The Factors Affecting the Earth’s Climate .............................................................. 168 Enhanced Greenhouse Effect ................................................................................... 169 Overriding the Earth’s Potencies .............................................................................. 171 Impact of Climate Change on Plant Physiology ...................................................... 173 Microevolutionary Responses of Plant Physiology to Climate Change .............. 175 Phenotypic Plasticity ...................................................................................... 176 Adaptive Evolution ......................................................................................... 176 Gene Flows ..................................................................................................... 176 Macroevolutionary Responses of Plant Physiology to Climate Change ............. 177 Species Interactions and the Evolution of Plant Physiology in Response to Climate Change ........................................................................................................ 179 Effects of Climate Change on Forest Ecosystems ................................................... 180 Forest Productivity .............................................................................................. 180 Forest Distribution ............................................................................................... 181 Forest Ecosystem Disturbances ........................................................................... 181 Forest Pests .......................................................................................................... 182 Impact on Forest Community .............................................................................. 182 Climate Change and Agriculture ............................................................................. 183 Coping with Climate Change ................................................................................... 189 Preparedness ........................................................................................................ 189 Adaptation ........................................................................................................... 190 Mitigation ............................................................................................................ 190 Climate-Smart Planet: A Sustainable Planet ........................................................... 191 Ecological Integrity and Ecological Security ...................................................... 191 Living Soil to Nurture the Roots of Life ............................................................. 192 Forests for a Healthy, Vibrant, and Sustainable Planet ....................................... 193 Climate-Smart Agriculture ...................................................................................... 196 Why an Agroecosystem Approach to Food Production? .................................... 197 Agroecology: The Philosophy of Food Production ............................................. 198 Enhanced Biodiversity Complexity ................................................................ 199 Treating Soil as an Ecosystem ........................................................................ 199 Maintaining Cyclic Flows of Nutrients .......................................................... 199 Vegetarianism: The Philosophy of Earth-Caring Nutrition ..................................... 201 Summary ..................................................................................................................203 References ................................................................................................................204 Websites ....................................................................................................................207 Index ..............................................................................................................................................209