Geographic Information Systems helps students understand how GIS enables us to digitally represent the forms, patterns and processes of Earth. The text demonstrates how the special qualities of spatial geographic data require new methods and theories, and how these new methods and theories embody the field of GIScience that underlie the technology of GIS. Designed for users already familiar with GIS, it takes students beyond the surface of the technology by explaining methods and algorithms in enough detail for students to get an intuitive grasp of the underlying ideas while also demonstrating how those ideas are applied to geographical information. In order to help students become more effective users of GIS technology, the book highlights many of the common research challenges of GIS and invites the reader to think broadly about the assumptions embedded in GIS practice today. The authors stress a critical approach throughout by describing selected aspects of the field in sufficient depth to scrutinize the formalisms underlying the simple user-interfaces that greet new GIS users. Geographic Information Systems serves as an indispensable gateway to higher study in GIS by readers interested in the fundamental research challenges facing the field today.

Table of Contents:
Note: each chapter contains equations and problems. * Content designed for advanced users Preface 1. Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Development of GIS: People and Institutions 1.3 Abstracting and Formalizing Geographic Information 1.3.1 Data Models 1.3.2 Algorithms 1.4 What Is Special about Spatial? * 1.4.1 Spatial vs. Geographic - Patterns and Processes 1.4.2 Time and Geographic Information 2. Geographic Data Acquisition 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Remotely Sensed Data 2.2.1 Aerial Photography 2.2.2 Earth Observation Sensors 2.2.3 Properties of Remotely Sensed Imagery 2.2.4 Handling Remotely Sensed Geographic Data in GIS 2.2.5 Radiometric Processing 2.2.6 Geometric Processing 2.2.7 Remote Sensing Data Compression 2.2.8 Selecting Remotely Sensed Imagery 2.3 Global Positioning Systems 2.3.1 History of GPS Technology 2.3.2 How GPS Works 2.3.3 Handling GPS Data in GIS 2.4 Converting Analogue Geographic Information 2.5 Synthesizing Existing Geographic Information * 2.5.1 Metadata and Geographic Information 2.6 Volunteered Geographic Information * 2.7 UAVs and DIY Geography * 3. Coordinate Systems and Frames of Reference 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Lumpy Ellipsoidal Earth, Flat Maps and Projections 3.3 Datums 3.4 Datum Transformations 3.4.1 Geocentric Datum Transformations 3.4.2 Ellipsoidal Datum Transformations 3.4.3 Grid-based Transformations 3.5 Map Projections and Spatial Reference Systems 3.5.1 Deformation Characteristics 3.5.2 Projected Surface Characteristics 3.5.3 Map Projections Methods 3.6 Scale and Frames of Reference * 4. Geographic Data Models 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Raster 4.2.1 Basic 4.2.2 Geometry 4.2.3 Attributes 4.2.4 Topology 4.2.5 Assumptions 4.2.6 Geometric Processing 4.3 Vector 4.3.1 Basic 4.3.2 Geometry 4.3.3 Attributes 4.3.4 Topology 4.3.5 Assumptions 4.3.6 Geometric Processing 4.4 Dual Vector 4.5 Other Models 4.6 Transforming Between Representations 4.6.1 Raster to Vector and Back 4.6.2 General Transformations * 4.7 Revisiting Standard Models: Topology, Embedding, and Oriented Matroids 4.7.1 Computer Aided Drawing/Drafting/Design (CAD) 4.7.2 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 4.7.3 Cellular Automata 4.7.4 Oriented Matroids * 5. Geographic Representation and Data Modelling 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Relational Databases and GIS 5.2.1 Emergence of RDBMS in GIS 5.2.2 Entity-Relationship Modelling 5.2.3 Generating Candidate Tables and Database Normalization 5.3 Objects and GIS 5.3.1 Key Concepts in Object Orientation 5.4 Object-Relational Databases 5.5 Database Storage 5.5.1 Data Types 5.6 Database Access and Manipulation 5.6.1 Structured Query Language (SQL) 5.6.2 Procedures, Triggers, and the Like 5.6.3 Spatial Indexing 5.6.4 Geographical Time-Series 5.7 Next-generation Databases for GIS 5.7.1 Document-storage Databases and NoSQL 5.7.2 Crowdsourcing: the Undatabase 6. Geographic Data Editing 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Editing Geographic Data Globally 6.2.1 Linear Transformation 6.2.2 Rubbersheeting 6.2.3 Generalization 6.3 Editing Feature Geometry 6.3.1 Detecting Errors 6.3.2 Fuzzy Tolerance and Snapping Features 6.3.3 Complex Geometry: Island Polygons, Donut Holes, and Measures 6.3.4 Multi-user Editing and Version Control Systems 6.4 Map Conflation 7. Error and Uncertainty in Geographic Information 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Samples and Populations: Statistical Inference in Geographical Analysis 7.3 Geographic Patterns as the Outcome of Stochastic Processes 7.4 Spatial Data Error, Uncertainty, and Spatial Data Quality 7.4.1 Vector Positional Accuracy 7.4.2 Raster Positional accuracy 7.4.3 Attribute Accuracy 7.4.4 Completeness 7.5 Error Propagation in Geographic Analysis 7.6 Fuzzy Geography 7.7 Topological Error 8. GeoComputation 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Algorithms 8.2.1 Line Segment Intersection 8.2.2 Point in Polygon 8.2.3 Convex Hulls 8.2.4 Voronoi Diagrams 8.2.5 Shortest Path Dijkstra's Algorithm 8.3 Computational Issues 8.3.1 Finite Precision Storage and Overflow Errors and Rounding Errors 8.3.2 Supercomputing 9. Geographic Measures 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Scales of Measurement 9.2.1 Nominal 9.2.2 Ordinal 9.2.3 Interval 9.2.4 Ratio 9.3 Central Tendency and Dispersion (1D and 2D) 9.3.1 Central Tendency 1D 9.3.2 Dispersion 1D 9.3.3 Central Tendency 2D 9.3.4 Dispersion 2D 9.4 [Adv] Measuring Geographical Patterns 9.4.1 Point Patterns 9.4.2 Spatial Autocorrelation 9.4.3 Landscape Metrics 10. Geographic Relationships 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Basic Measures of Geographic Relationships and Forms 10.2.1 Distance 10.2.2 Direction 10.2.3 Adjacency 10.2.4 Interaction 10.2.5 Neighbourhood 10.2.6 Area 10.3 Advanced Measures of Geographic Relationships and Forms * 10.3.1 Shape 10.3.2 Dimension 10.3.3 Connectivity Measures for a Connected Planar Graph 11. Geographic Analysis 11.1 Introduction 11.2 The Algebra of Analysis 11.2.1 Boolean Algebra 11.2.2 Map Algebra 11.3 Analyzing Geographical Patterns * 11.3.1 Recognizing and Classifying Geographic Patterns 11.3.2 Generating New Patterns from Existing Geographic Patterns 11.3.3 Extracting Optimal Information from Geographic Patterns 12. Emerging Trends in Geographic Information 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Data Acquisition 12.3 Data Modelling 12.4 GIS Data and Society Appendix I. Mathematical Notation and Terminology I.1 Sets I.2 Summation I.3 Vectors and Matrices I.4 Mathematical Expectation Appendix II. Mathematical Graphs II.1 Prim's Algorithm for Finding a Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) II.2 Euler's equation. Appendix III. Why (n - 1) and not n in s2? Appendix IV. Details on Information Measure Appendix V. Rotation Transformation V.1 The Basic Result V.2 The Double Angle Formulas V.3 Sine and Cosine Definit Appendix VI. Projections and Transformations VI.1 The Rotational Ellipsoid VI.2 Ellipsoidal Geographic Coordinates References Glossary Index