Two Professors from Boston., Walter B. Cannon, a physiologist at the Harvard Medical School, and Norbert Wiener, a mathematician at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, were pioneers in the intellectual breakthrough that opened the door to a naturalistic explanation of purposeful life and intelligence. Cannon's book The Wisdom of the Body published in 1932 and Weiner's work in Cybernetics introduced the concepts of organization and control into the biological and social sciences. Cybernetics and Information Theory became new engineering disciplines. Computer programs were created that could duplicate many feats of human intelligence and the possibility of intelligent machines was explored. Alan Turing found it appropriate to devise a test that could be used to distinguish between the reactions of a man and those of a machine. The mathematician John von Neuman wrote a book entitled The Computer and the Brain. W. Ross Ashby published a book entitled Design for a Brain. In a little book entitled Vehicles: Experiments in Synthetic Psychology Valentino Braitenberg described a world of goal-directed mechanical devices that could develop the skills of optimistic prediction. Douglas Hofstadter wrote a Pulitzer prize winning book that carried the subtitle: A Metaphorical Fugue on Minds and Machines in the Spirit of Lewis Carroll. For the first time scientists became aware of the possibility that life and intelligence might have evolved directly and naturally from the complex interactions of the forces of nature. For creationists this was the ultimate heresy but for twentieth century scientists, steeped in the rationalism of the eighteenth century, it was not a religious issue. It was merelyanother possibility in their search for the laws and designs in a world of natural laws. The biologists turned to the practical task of looking for the origins of intelligence in primitive creatures. The stimulus-response models of animal behavior gave them a to