INTRODUCTION TO PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY A new edition of the indispensable guide to particulates and powders Particle technology concerns the formation, processing and properties of the particles and powders which make up many of the products that surround us. Such products range from the cement and aggregate in the built environment to pharmaceuticals and processed foods. Most of the process industries involve particles, either as essential components such as catalysts or as intermediate or final products, and minerals such as the rare earths that are generally mined and processed in particulate form. Particles can have many beneficial uses but they can also cause harm in the environment and, through inhalation, to the individual. In all cases, the powder properties, particularly particle size, are crucially important. This well-known textbook, now in its 3rd edition, provides an easily-understood introduction to the underlying scientific principles of particle technology, together with examples of how these principles can be used in practical design and operation of industrial processes. Each chapter contains both worked examples and exercises for the student. Based on feedback from students and users of the earlier editions, this revised and expanded text includes introductory chapters on particles as products and on computational methods. The topics have been selected to give coverage of the broad areas of particle technology and include: Characterization (size analysis, surface area) Processing (granulation, fluidization) Particle formation (granulation, crystallisation, tableting, size reduction) Storage and transport (hopper design, pneumatic conveying, standpipes) Separation (filtration, settling, cyclones) Safety (fire and explosion hazards, health hazards) Engineering the properties of particulate systems to achieve desired product performance Discrete element modelling of particulate systems Introduction to Particle Technology, 3rd Edition is essential reading for students of chemical engineering. The text is also recommended reading for students of mechanical engineering, applied chemistry, pharmaceutics, physics, mineral processing, and metallurgy, and is an excellent source for practising engineers and scientists looking to establish a working knowledge of the subject.

Table of Contents:
About the Authors xi Preface to the Third Edition xii Preface to the Second Edition xiii Preface to the First Edition xiv Acknowledgements xvii About the Website xviii Introduction xix 1 Particle Analysis 1 1.1 Particle Size 1 1.2 Description of Populations of Particles 4 1.3 Conversion Between Distributions 4 1.4 Describing the Population by a Single Number 7 1.5 Equivalence of Means 9 1.6 Common Methods of Displaying Size Distributions 11 1.6.1 Normal Distribution 11 1.6.2 Log-normal Distribution 11 1.7 Methods of Particle Size Measurement 12 1.7.1 Image Analysis 13 1.7.2 Light Scattering 13 1.7.3 Dynamic Light Scattering 15 1.7.4 Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer 15 1.7.5 Other Methods 16 1.8 Surface Area Measurement 17 1.8.1 Adsorption Isotherms 17 1.8.2 The BET Technique 17 1.9 Sampling 19 1.10 Worked Examples 19 Test Yourself 28 Exercises 29 2 Mechanical Properties of Particles 32 2.1 Introduction to Material Properties 33 2.2 Particle–Particle Contact for Elastic Materials 36 2.3 Contact in the Presence of Surface Forces 38 2.3.1 Cohesion and Adhesion 38 2.3.2 Surface Roughness and Contamination 41 2.3.3 Comparison of Cohesion with Particle Weight 41 2.3.4 Measurement of Cohesion and Adhesion 42 2.4 Friction 43 2.5 Impact and Bounce 45 2.5.1 Impacts in the Normal Direction 45 2.5.2 Oblique Impacts 47 2.6 Liquid Bridges 47 2.7 Worked Examples 52 Test Yourself 54 Exercises 54 3 Motion of Particles in a Fluid 56 3.1 Single Particles in a Fluid 56 3.1.1 Motion of Single Solid Particles in a Fluid 56 3.1.2 Particles Falling Under Gravity Through a Fluid 59 3.1.3 Effect of Boundaries on Terminal Velocity 63 3.1.4 Unsteady Motion 64 3.1.5 Further Reading 65 3.1.6 Worked Examples on the Motion of Single Particles in a Fluid 66 Test Yourself – Single Particles in a Fluid 74 3.2 Settling of a Suspension of Particles 75 3.2.1 Introduction 75 3.2.2 Settling Flux as a Function of Suspension Concentration 77 3.2.3 Sharp Interfaces in Sedimentation 79 3.2.4 The Batch Settling Test 80 3.2.5 Relationship Between the Height–Time Curve and the Flux Plot 83 3.2.6 Worked Examples on Settling of a Suspension of Particles 85 Test Yourself – Settling of a Suspension Particles 92 Exercises – Single Particles in a Fluid 92 Exercises – Settling of a Suspension of Particles 95 4 Discrete Element Method Modelling 102 4.1 Introduction 102 4.2 Principles – The “Hard-Sphere” and “Soft-Sphere” Approaches 104 4.3 Updating Particle Positions –‘Time-Stepping’ 107 4.4 Contact Detection 109 4.5 Contact Modelling 110 4.5.1 Linear Spring–Dashpot Model 111 4.5.2 Hertzian Model 112 4.5.3 Elastoplastic Models 112 4.5.4 Cohesive Models 113 4.6 Coupling with Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD–DEM) 114 4.7 Calibration 115 4.8 Modelling Large Systems 118 4.9 Modelling Aspherical Particles 119 4.10 Data Analysis and Visualization 121 4.11 Validation 123 4.12 Worked Examples 124 Exercises 132 Interactive Exercises 132 5 Colloids, Aerosols and Fine Particles 133 5.1 Introduction 133 5.2 Brownian Motion 134 5.3 Surface Forces 136 5.3.1 van der Waals Forces 137 5.3.2 Electrical Double-Layer Forces 139 5.3.3 Adsorbing Polymers, Bridging and Steric Forces 144 5.3.4 Net Interaction Force 145 5.4 Effect of Surface Forces on Behaviour in Air and Water 145 5.5 Influences of Particle Size and Surface Forces on Solid/Liquid Separation by Sedimentation 148 5.5.1 Sedimentation Rate 148 5.5.2 Sediment Concentration and Consolidation 149 5.6 Gas–Solid Separation 151 5.7 Suspension Rheology 152 5.8 Influence of Surface Forces on Suspension Flow 157 5.8.1 Repulsive Forces 157 5.8.2 Attractive Forces 158 5.9 Nanoparticles 162 5.10 Worked Examples 163 Test Yourself 166 Exercises 167 6 Packed Beds and Fluidized Beds 170 6.1 Fluid Flow Through a Packed Bed of Particles 170 6.1.1 Pressure Drop–Flow Relationship 170 6.1.2 Further Reading 174 6.1.3 Worked Examples 174 Test Yourself – Fluid Flow through Packed Beds 176 6.2 Fluidization 176 6.2.1 Fundamentals 176 6.2.2 Relevant Powder and Particle Properties 179 6.2.3 Bubbling and Non-Bubbling Fluidization 181 6.2.4 Classification of Powders 183 6.2.5 Expansion of a Fluidized Bed 187 6.2.6 Entrainment 191 6.2.7 Heat Transfer in Fluidized Beds 195 6.2.8 A Simple Model for the Bubbling Fluidized Bed Reactor 201 6.2.9 High Velocity Fluidization 205 6.2.10 Some Practical Considerations 210 6.2.11 Applications of Fluidized Beds 213 6.2.12 Worked Examples 220 Test Yourself – Fluidization 226 Exercises – Fluid Flow through Packed Beds 227 Exercises – Fluidization 228 7 Pneumatic Transport and Standpipes 233 7.1 Pneumatic Transport 233 7.1.1 Dilute Phase and Dense Phase Transport 234 7.1.2 The Choking Velocity in Vertical Transport 234 7.1.3 The Saltation Velocity in Horizontal Transport 236 7.1.4 Fundamentals 237 7.1.5 Design for Dilute Phase Transport 240 7.1.6 Dense Phase Transport 245 7.1.7 Matching the System to the Powder 250 7.2 Standpipes 251 7.2.1 Standpipes in Packed Bed Flow 252 7.2.2 Standpipes in Fluidized Bed Flow 252 7.2.3 Pressure Balance During Standpipe Operation 255 7.2.4 Further Reading 257 7.3 Worked Examples 258 Test Yourself 263 Exercises 264 8 Separation of Particles from a Gas 266 8.1 Gas Cyclones 267 8.1.1 Flow Characteristics of Cyclones 268 8.1.2 Efficiency of Separation of Cyclones 268 8.1.3 Scale-up of Cyclones 272 8.1.4 Range of Operation of Cyclones 275 8.1.5 Some Practical Design and Operation Details of Cyclones 276 8.2 Filtration 279 8.3 Worked Examples 282 Test Yourself 285 Exercises 286 9 Storage and Flow of Powders – Hopper Design 288 9.1 Mass Flow and Core Flow 288 9.2 The Design Philosophy 290 9.2.1 Flow – No Flow Criterion 291 9.2.2 The Hopper Flow Factor ff 291 9.2.3 Unconfined Yield Stress σy 291 9.2.4 Powder Flow Function 292 9.2.5 Critical Conditions for Flow 292 9.2.6 Critical Outlet Dimension 293 9.2.7 Summary 294 9.3 Shear Cell Test 294 9.4 Analysis of Shear Cell Test Results 296 9.4.1 Mohr’s Circle – in Brief 296 9.4.2 Application of Mohr’s Circle to the Analysis of the Yield Locus 297 9.4.3 Determination of σy and σc 298 9.4.4 Determination of δ from Shear Cell Tests 298 9.4.5 The Kinematic Angle of Friction between Powder and Hopper Wall, ΦW 299 9.4.6 Determination of the Hopper Flow Factor, ff 300 9.5 Summary of Design Procedure 304 9.6 Discharge Aids 304 9.7 Pressure on the Base of a Tall Cylindrical Bin 304 9.8 Mass Flow Rates 307 9.9 Conclusions 308 9.10 Worked Examples 309 Test Yourself 314 Exercises 314 10 Mixing and Segregation 319 10.1 Types of Mixture 319 10.2 Segregation 320 10.2.1 Causes and Consequences of Segregation 320 10.2.2 Mechanisms of Segregation 321 10.3 Reduction of Segregation 324 10.4 Equipment for Particulate Mixing 325 10.4.1 Mechanisms of Mixing 325 10.4.2 Types of Mixer 326 10.5 Analysis of Mixer Performance 328 10.5.1 Simple V-Mixer 328 10.5.2 Analysing More Complex Mixers 331 10.6 Assessing the Mixture 332 10.6.1 Quality of a Mixture 332 10.6.2 Sampling 333 10.6.3 Statistics Relevant to Mixing 333 10.7 Worked Examples 335 Test Yourself 340 Exercises 341 11 Particle Size Reduction 343 11.1 Mechanisms of Particle Size Reduction 344 11.1.1 Breakage 344 11.1.2 Abrasion 348 11.1.3 Stressing Mechanisms for Size Reduction 348 11.2 Model Predicting Energy Requirement and Product Size Distribution 349 11.2.1 Energy Requirement 349 11.2.2 Prediction of the Product Size Distribution 352 11.3 Attrition 354 11.3.1 Sources of Attrition in Processes 355 11.3.2 Measurement of the Degree of Attrition Within a Process 355 11.3.3 Measurement Methods 356 11.3.4 Energy Requirement for Attrition 356 11.4 Types of Comminution Equipment 357 11.4.1 Stressing Mechanism 357 11.4.2 Particle Size 362 11.4.3 Material Properties 363 11.4.4 Carrier Medium 364 11.4.5 Mode of Operation 364 11.4.6 Combination with Other Operations 364 11.4.7 Types of Milling Circuit 364 11.5 Worked Examples 366 Test Yourself 368 Exercises 369 12 Size Enlargement 372 12.1 Introduction 372 12.2 Crystallization 373 12.2.1 Crystal Structure 373 12.2.2 Solubility and Saturation 374 12.2.3 Nucleation and Growth 376 12.2.4 Crystallizer Design 378 12.3 Granulation 378 12.3.1 Introduction 378 12.3.2 Granulation Rate Processes 380 12.3.3 Simulation of the Granulation Process 388 12.3.4 Granulation Equipment 391 12.4 Tableting 398 Further Reading 401 12.5 Worked Examples 401 Test Yourself 402 Exercises 403 13 Particulate Products 405 13.1 Introduction 405 13.2 Structure and Properties 407 13.3 Dissolution and Dispersion 412 13.4 Suspensions and Their Stability 415 13.5 Some Industrial Product Sectors 417 13.5.1 Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms 417 13.5.2 Food 419 13.5.3 Paint and Coatings 419 Further Reading 422 Test Yourself 422 Exercises 423 14 Health and Safety 424 14.1 Fire and Explosion Hazards of Fine Powders 424 14.1.1 Introduction 424 14.1.2 Combustion Fundamentals 426 14.1.3 Combustion in Dust Clouds 428 14.1.4 Control of the Hazard 433 14.1.5 Worked Examples 436 Test Yourself on Fire and Explosion Hazards 442 14.2 Health Effects of Fine Powders 443 14.2.1 Introduction 443 14.2.2 The Human Respiratory System 443 14.2.3 Interaction of Fine Powders with the Respiratory System 445 14.2.4 Pulmonary Delivery of Drugs 450 14.2.5 Harmful Effects of Fine Powders 452 Test Yourself on Health Effects of Fine Powders 454 Exercises – Fire and Explosion Hazards 454 Exercises – Health Effects of Fine Powders 456 Notation 457 References 461 Index 468