About the Book
The community responsible for developing lexicons for Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Machine Readable Dictionaries (MRDs) started their ISO standardization activities in 2003. These activities resulted in the ISO standard – Lexical Markup Framework (LMF).
After selecting and defining a common terminology, the LMF team had to identify the common notions shared by all lexicons in order to specify a common skeleton (called the core model) and understand the various requirements coming from different groups of users.
The goals of LMF are to provide a common model for the creation and use of lexical resources, to manage the exchange of data between and among these resources, and to enable the merging of a large number of individual electronic resources to form extensive global electronic resources.
The various types of individual instantiations of LMF can include monolingual, bilingual or multilingual lexical resources. The same specifications can be used for small and large lexicons, both simple and complex, as well as for both written and spoken lexical representations. The descriptions range from morphology, syntax and computational semantics to computer-assisted translation. The languages covered are not restricted to European languages, but apply to all natural languages.
The LMF specification is now a success and numerous lexicon managers currently use LMF in different languages and contexts.
This book starts with the historical context of LMF, before providing an overview of the LMF model and the Data Category Registry, which provides a flexible means for applying constants like /grammatical gender/ in a variety of different settings. It then presents concrete applications and experiments on real data, which are important for developers who want to learn about the use of LMF.
Contents
1. LMF – Historical Context and Perspectives, Nicoletta Calzolari, Monica Monachini and Claudia Soria.
2. Model Description, Gil Francopoulo and Monte George.
3. LMF and the Data Category Registry: Principles and Application, Menzo Windhouwer and Sue Ellen Wright.
4. Wordnet-LMF: A Standard Representation for Multilingual Wordnets, Piek Vossen, Claudia Soria and Monica Monachini.
5. Prolmf: A Multilingual Dictionary of Proper Names and their Relations, Denis Maurel, Béatrice Bouchou-Markhoff.
6. LMF for Arabic, Aida Khemakhem, Bilel Gargouri, Kais Haddar and Abdelmajid Ben Hamadou.
7. LMF for a Selection of African Languages, Chantal Enguehard and Mathieu Mangeot.
8. LMF and its Implementation in Some Asian Languages, Takenobu Tokunaga, Sophia Y.M. Lee, Virach Sornlertlamvanich, Kiyoaki Shirai, Shu-Kai Hsieh and Chu-Ren Huang.
9. DUELME: Dutch Electronic Lexicon of Multiword Expressions, Jan Odijk.
10. UBY-LMF – Exploring the Boundaries of Language-Independent Lexicon Models, Judith Eckle-Kohler, Iryna Gurevych, Silvana Hartmann, Michael Matuschek and Christian M. Meyer.
11. Conversion of Lexicon-Grammar Tables to LMF: Application to French, Éric Laporte, Elsa Tolone and Matthieu Constant.
12. Collaborative Tools: From Wiktionary to LMF, for Synchronic and Diachronic Language Data, Thierry Declerck, Pirsoka Lendvai and Karlheinz Mörth.
13. LMF Experiments on Format Conversions for Resource Merging: Converters and Problems, Marta Villegas, Muntsa Padró and Núria Bel.
14. LMF as a Foundation for Servicized Lexical Resources, Yoshihiko Hayashi, Monica Monachini, Bora Savas, Claudia Soria and Nicoletta Calzolari.
15. Creating a Serialization of LMF: The Experience of the RELISH Project, Menzo Windhouwer, Justin Petro, Irina Nevskaya, Sebastian Drude, Helen Aristar-Dry and Jost Gippert.
16. Global Atlas: Proper Nouns, From Wikipedia to LMF, Gil Francopoulo, Frédéric Marcoul, David Causse and Grégory Piparo.
17. LMF in U.S. Government Language Resource Management, Monte George.
About the Authors
Gil Francopoulo works for Tagmatica (www.tagmatica.com), a company specializing in software development in the field of linguistics and documentation in the semantic web, in Paris, France, as well as for Spotter (www.spotter.com), a company specializing in media and social media analytics.
Table of Contents:
Preface xiii
Chapter 1. LMF – Historical Context and Perspectives 1
Nicoletta CALZOLARI, Monica MONACHINI and Claudia SORIA
1.1. Introduction 1
1.2. The context 2
1.3. The foundations: the Grosseto Workshop and the “X-Lex” projects 4
1.4. EAGLES and ISLE . 5
1.5. Setting up methodologies and principles for standards 6
1.6. EAGLES/ISLE legacy 10
1.7. Interoperability: the keystone of the field 14
1.8. Bibliography 15
Chapter 2. Model Description 19
Gil FRANCOPOULO and Monte GEORGE
2.1. Objectives 19
2.2. The ISO specification 19
2.3. Means of description 20
2.4. Core model 21
2.5. Core model and extension packages 22
2.6. Morphology extension 23
2.7. Machine-Readable Dictionary extension 26
2.8. NLP syntax extension 27
2.9. NLP semantic extension 29
2.10. Multilingual notation extension 31
2.11. NLP morphological pattern extension 33
2.12. NLP multiword expression pattern extension 36
2.13. Constraint expression extension 38
2.14. Conclusion 39
2.15. Bibliography 40
Chapter 3. LMF and the Data Category Registry: Principles and Application 41
Menzo WINDHOUWER and Sue Ellen WRIGHT
3.1. Introduction 41
3.2. Data category specifications 42
3.3. The ISOcat Data Category Registry 44
3.3.1. A web user interface 44
3.4. LMF and data categories 45
3.5. Conclusions and future work 49
3.6. Bibliography 49
Chapter 4. Wordnet-LMF: A Standard Representation for Multilingual Wordnets 51
Piek VOSSEN, Claudia SORIA and Monica MONACHINI
4.1. Introduction 51
4.2. The KYOTO project 52
4.3. LMF and Wordnet representation 54
4.4. Wordnet-LMF 56
4.5. Conclusions 62
4.6. Bibliography 65
Chapter 5. Prolmf: A Multilingual Dictionary of Proper Names and their Relations 67
Denis MAUREL, Béatrice BOUCHOU-MARKHOFF
5.1. Motivation 67
5.2. Prolmf basis 69
5.3. More on lexica and relations in Prolmf 73
5.4. Conclusion 77
5.5. Bibliography 79
5.6. Appendix 80
Chapter 6. LMF for Arabic 83
Aida KHEMAKHEM, Bilel GARGOURI, Kais HADDAR and Abdelmajid BEN HAMADOU
6.1. Introduction 83
6.2. Modeling of the basic properties 85
6.3. Modeling of the morphologic extension 86
6.4. Modeling of the morphologic pattern extension 88
6.5. Modeling of the syntactic extension 90
6.6. Modeling of the semantic extension 92
6.7. Arabic LMF applications 94
6.8. Implementation 95
6.9. Conclusion 96
6.10. Bibliography 96
Chapter 7. LMF for a Selection of African Languages 99
Chantal ENGUEHARD and Mathieu MANGEOT
7.1. Introduction 99
7.2. Less-resourced languages 99
7.3. From published dictionaries to LMF 102
7.4. Illustrations 104
7.5. Difficulties and proposals 113
7.6. Conclusion 117
7.7. Acknowledgments 117
7.8. Bibliography 117
Chapter 8. LMF and its Implementation in Some Asian Languages 119
Takenobu TOKUNAGA, Sophia Y.M. LEE, Virach SORNLERTLAMVANICH,Kiyoaki SHIRAI, Shu-Kai HSIEH and Chu-Ren HUANG
8.1. Introduction 119
8.2. Lexical specification and data categories 120
8.3. Upper-layer ontology 125
8.4. Evaluation platform 126
8.5. Discussion 128
8.6. Conclusion 129
8.7. Acknowledgments 130
8.8. Bibliography 131
Chapter 9. DUELME: Dutch Electronic Lexicon of Multiword Expressions 133
Jan ODIJK
9.1. Introduction 133
9.2. DUELME 134
9.3. LMF 135
9.4. The DUELME class model 135
9.5. Comparison with the LMF Core Package 137
9.6. Comparison with the LMF NLP multiword expression patterns extension 139
9.7. Conclusions 142
9.8. Acknowledgments 143
9.9. Bibliography 143
Chapter 10. UBY-LMF – Exploring the Boundaries of Language-Independent Lexicon Models 145
Judith ECKLE-KOHLER, Iryna GUREVYCH, Silvana HARTMANN, Michael MATUSCHEK and Christian M. MEYER
10.1. Introduction 145
10.2. Architecture of UBY-LMF 147
10.3. Language independence of UBY-LMF 148
10.4. FrameNet in UBY-LMF 151
10.5. Conclusion 153
10.6. Acknowledgments 154
10.7. Bibliography 154
Chapter 11. Conversion of Lexicon-Grammar Tables to LMF: Application to French 157
Éric LAPORTE, Elsa TOLONE and Matthieu CONSTANT
11.1. Motivation 157
11.2. The Lexicon-Grammar 157
11.3. Lexical entries 160
11.4. Subcategorization frames 163
11.5. Results 170
11.6. Conclusion 171
11.7. Bibliography 172
Chapter 12. Collaborative Tools: From Wiktionary to LMF, for Synchronic and Diachronic Language Data 175
Thierry DECLERCK, Pirsoka LENDVAI and Karlheinz MÖRTH
12.1. Introduction 175
12.2. Wiktionary 175
12.3. Related work 177
12.4. Additional challenges: how to encode the diversity of Wiktionary lexicon in LMF? 179
12.5. Conclusion 183
12.6. Bibliography 184
Chapter 13. LMF Experiments on Format Conversions for Resource Merging: Converters and Problems 187
Marta VILLEGAS, Muntsa PADRÓ and Núria BEL
13.1. Introduction 187
13.2. Automatic merging of resources 188
13.3. Moving from PAROLE Genelex to LMF 191
13.4. Conclusion 197
13.5. Availability of resources 198
13.6. Bibliography 198
Chapter 14. LMF as a Foundation for Servicized Lexical Resources 201
Yoshihiko HAYASHI, Monica MONACHINI, Bora SAVAS, Claudia SORIA and Nicoletta CALZOLARI
14.1. Introduction 201
14.2. Lexical resources as lexical Web services 201
14.3. LMF-aware Web services in the RESTful style 202
14.4. Implementation showcases 203
14.5. Summary 212
14.6. Bibliography 212
Chapter 15. Creating a Serialization of LMF: The Experience of the RELISH Project 215
Menzo WINDHOUWER, Justin PETRO, Irina NEVSKAYA, Sebastian DRUDE, Helen ARISTAR-DRY and Jost GIPPERT
15.1. Introduction . . 215
15.2. Overview of the RELISH interchange format 216
15.3. Mapping of equivalent elements 217
15.4. Complex mappings 219
15.5. Harmonization of linguistic concepts 223
15.6. Conclusions and future work 224
15.7. Bibliography 225
Chapter 16. Global Atlas: Proper Nouns, From Wikipedia to LMF 227
Gil FRANCOPOULO, Frédéric MARCOUL, David CAUSSE and Grégory PIPARO
16.1. Motivation 227
16.2. Preparing recognition 227
16.3. Context of usage 230
16.4. Ontology of types 231
16.5. Main source: Wikipedia 232
16.6. Extraction 233
16.7. Auxiliary machine learning 234
16.8. LMF structures 234
16.9. Example 235
16.10. Results 237
16.11. Current limitations and planned improvements 237
16.12. LMF limitations 238
16.13. Related work 238
16.14. Conclusion 239
16.15. Bibliography 239
Chapter 17. LMF in U.S. Government Language Resource Management 243
Monte GEORGE
17.1. Introduction 243
17.2. Wordscape overview 244
17.3. The goal 245
17.4. The importance of data standards 245
17.5. Language base exchange 246
17.6. Managing multilingual representations 249
17.7. Managing grammatical information 251
17.8. Grammatical information, an MRD example 255
17.9. Managing LBX schema and document instances 258
17.10. Data exchange using LBX 259
17.11. Summary 260
List of Authors 263
Index 267
