Natural history collections have recently acquired an unprecedented place of importance in scientific research. Originally created in the context of systematics and taxonomy, they are now proving to be fundamental for answering various scientific and societal questions that are as significant as they are current. Natural History Collections in the Science of the 21st Century presents a wide range of questions and answers raised by the study of collections. The billions of specimens that have been collected from all around the world over more than two centuries provide us with information that is vital in our quest for knowledge about the Earth, the universe, the diversity of life and the history of humankind. These collections also provide valuable reference points from the past to help us understand the nature and dynamics of global change today. Their physical permanence is the best guarantee we have of a return to data and to information sources in the context of open science.

Table of Contents:
Foreword xvii Bruno DAVID Acknowledgments xxi Roseli PELLENS Chapter 1 Natural History Collections: An Essential Resource for Science in the 21st Century 1 Roseli PELLENS 1.1 Collections in early 21st century science 2 1.2 New explorations because of the magnitude and diversity of the collections’ data 3 1.3 Research using and driving the constitution of natural history collections 5 1.3.1 Being able to return to the object: one of the major contributions of natural history collections 6 1.3.2 Collections at the heart of highly innovative research thanks to new technologies 7 1.3.3 A resource for global change research 8 1.3.4 Designing the science of the future based on collections 9 1.4 References 11 Chapter 2 Natural History Collections: An Ancient Concept in a Present and Future Perspective 13 Philippe GRANDCOLAS 2.1 Introduction 14 2.2 A tribute to curiosity and coupling with classifications 14 2.3 The structuring of our thoughts and actions by an ancient concept 16 2.4 Collections: more than species catalogues 18 2.5 Big Data collections in space and time 19 2.6 What future is there for the use of collections? 20 2.7 Conclusion 22 2.8 References 22 Chapter 3 Louis XIV’s Blue Gems: Exceptional Rediscoveries at the French National Museum of Natural History 27 François FARGES 3.1 Introduction 29 3.2 A scientific investigation of color 31 3.3 The digital decoding of the creative genius of the royal gem cutter 32 3.4 Epilogue: toward a renaissance 35 3.5 References 36 Chapter 4. Rediscovering Human Mummies: Unpublished data on the Chachapoya Mummy Exhibited at the Musée de l’Homme 37 Aline THOMAS, Arnaud ANSART, Christophe BOU, Jean-Bernard HUCHET, Véronique LABORDE, Samuel MERIGEAUD and Éloïse QUETEL 4.1 Introduction 38 4.1.1 The Muséum’s collection of human mummies 38 4.1.2 Origin, discovery, donation and exhibition: a brief history of the mummy 40 4.2 Materials and methods 43 4.2.1 The MNHN-HA-30187 mummy: position of the body, measurements and external appearance 43 4.2.2 Medical imaging protocol and technique 45 4.2.3 Protocol for experimental reproduction of trepanation 45 4.3 Results 46 4.3.1 Basic biological identity 46 4.3.2 Osteo-dental status 47 4.3.3 Internal organs 48 4.3.4 Archeoentomology 50 4.3.5 Cranial trepanation: location, size and mode of operation 52 4.4 Discussion 54 4.4.1 Identity of the deceased and health status 54 4.4.2 Treatment of the corpse and embalming 55 4.4.3 Chronology of mortuary gestures 56 4.5 Conclusion 58 4.6 References 59 Chapter 5 Reconstructing the History of Human Populations: A Challenge for Biological Anthropology 63 Martin FRIESS and Manon GALLAND 5.1 Introduction 63 5.1.1 How human remains have also become scientific objects 63 5.1.2 The MNHN biological anthropology collection 64 5.1.3 Cranial morphology as an indication of biocultural processes 65 5.2 Cranial morphology and settlement history 66 5.2.1 A new look at the diversity of Native Americans 69 5.3 Cranial morphology and adaptation to the environment 71 5.3.1 Cranial diversity beyond randomness 73 5.4 The importance of cranial collection for the advancement of research in biological anthropology 75 5.5 References 76 Chapter 6 The Discovery of New Metal-Hyperaccumulating Plant Species in Herbaria 79 Vanessa R. INVERNÓN, Romane TISSERAND, Pierre JOUANNAIS, Dulce M. NAVARRETE GUTIÉRREZ, Serge MULLER, Yohan PILLON, Guillaume ECHEVARRIA and Sylvain MERLOT 6.1 Metal-hyperaccumulating plants 80 6.2 The screening of herbarium collections: from atomic absorption to X-ray fluorescence 83 6.3 The discovery of new metal-hyperaccumulating plants at the MNHN herbarium 85 6.3.1 The interest of the MNHN herbarium for the research of metal-hyperaccumulating plants 85 6.3.2 From the herbarium to the field: new nickel hyperaccumulators in the genus Orthion 87 6.3.3 Rinorea multivenosa, the first zinc hyperaccumulating species discovered in the Amazon basin 88 6.3.4 A large number of manganese hyperaccumulating species to be discovered 90 6.4 Conclusion 91 6.5 Acknowledgments 92 6.6 References 92 Chapter 7 Fossil Crustaceans in the Light of New Technologies 95 Sylvain CHARBONNIER and Marie-Béatrice FOREL 7.1 Introduction 96 7.2 Fossil crustaceans 96 7.3 The radiation of fossil crustaceans 98 7.3.1 Revealing characters with UV light (yellow fluorescence) 98 7.3.2 Revealing characters with green light (green–orange fluorescence) 99 7.3.3 X-ray radiography 100 7.4 Exceptional preservation of fossil crustaceans 102 7.5 Ostracods and paleogeography at the end of the Paleozoic 105 7.6 References 105 Chapter 8 The “Cyanobacteria and Microalgae” Collection in the Time of “-omics” 109 Sébastien DUPERRON, Charlotte DUVAL, Sahima HAMLAOUI, Katia COMTE, Claude YÉPRÉMIAN and Cécile BERNARD 8.1 Introduction 109 8.2 A living collection supported by research 111 8.3 New uses of the collection in basic research 114 8.3.1 Polyphasic identification and taxonomy of cyanobacteria and microalgae 114 8.3.2 Contribution to the evolutionary sciences 114 8.3.3 Contribution to the study of interactions between organisms 115 8.4 Enhancing the value of biological resources through the search for innovative bioactive molecules 116 8.5 Expertise in environmental diagnosis 118 8.6 The living collection of cyanobacteria and microalgae of today and tomorrow 119 8.7 References 121 Chapter 9 The Collection of Cryopreserved Cells and Tissues of Vertebrates: Methods and Application 125 Michèle GERBAULT-SEUREAU and Bernard DUTRILLAUX 9.1 Introduction 126 9.2 History of the collection 126 9.3 Can all living beings be cryopreserved? 127 9.3.1 Collection, culture and freezing 128 9.4 Current applications 130 9.5 Current composition of the bank 133 9.6 Perspectives 136 9.7 References 137 Chapter 10 Herbaria, the Last Resort for Extinct Plant Species 139 Serge MULLER, Valérie PRIOLET, Éric BADEL and Stéphane BUORD 10.1 Context and objectives 140 10.2 Proposed approach and protocol 141 10.3 First results 142 10.3.1. Selection of target species and identification of affine species 142 10.3.2 Assessment of the viability of available seeds 145 10.3.3. Cultivation experiments on affine species of the target species 149 10.4 Discussion and conclusion 152 10.5 Acknowledgments 154 10.6 References 154 Chapter 11 Ocean Cores, Climate Archives 159 Eva MORENO and Annachiara BARTOLINI 11.1 Introduction 160 11.2 The MNHN’s oceanic collection 160 11.3 Development of core drilling techniques 161 11.4 Ocean cores: archives of past climate variability 163 11.5 Climate proxies 164 11.5.1 Temperature proxies 165 11.5.2 Proxies of salinity 169 11.5.3 Paleo-pH proxies and carbonate ion concentration 170 11.6 Analytical techniques 171 11.7 Conclusion 172 11.8 References 173 Chapter 12 Clarifying the Radiocarbon Calibration Curve for Ancient Egypt: The Wager of Herbaria 177 Anita QUILES, Vanessa R. INVERNÓN, Lucile BECK, Emmanuelle DELQUE-KOLIC, Myriam GAUDEUL, Serge MULLER and Germinal ROUHAN 12.1 Introduction 178 12.2 Carbon-14 (14 C) dating and Egyptian chronology 179 12.2.1 The challenge of calibration 179 12.2.2 Chronology of ancient Egypt: contribution of 14 C and historic debates 181 12.3 Specificities of the Egyptian landscape and the objective of the project 182 12.4 The flora of Egypt in the MNHN Herbarium 184 12.5 Analytical and statistical challenges 186 12.5.1 Selection of herbarium specimens 187 12.5.2 Preliminary results of 14 C dating 187 12.6 Conclusion 190 12.7 References 191 Chapter 13 Herbaria, a Window into the Evolutionary History of Crop Pathogens 195 Lionel GAGNEVIN, Adrien RIEUX, Jean-Michel LETT, Philippe ROUMAGNAC, Boris SZUREK, Paola CAMPOS, Claudia BAIDER, Myriam GAUDEUL and Nathalie BECKER 13.1 Epidemics, emergences and re-emergences 196 13.2 Development of agriculture, domestication of cultivated plants and their diseases 197 13.3 Molecular biology and genomics as a tool for studying phytopathogenic micro-organisms 199 13.4 Contributions of the herbarium samples 199 13.4.1 Direct evidence 200 13.4.2 Molecular analyses 201 13.5 How to explore a herbarium 203 13.6 Characteristics of old nucleic acids and their treatment 205 13.6.1 The particular case of viral nucleic acids 206 13.7. Xanthomonas citri pv. citri and its emergence in the Indian Ocean 208 13.8 Emergence and evolutionary history of plant pathogenic viruses: the geminivirus model 209 13.8.1 Case of a species complex responsible for an emerging disease 210 13.8.2 Case of a cryptic geminivirus 211 13.9 Discussion 212 13.10 Acknowledgments and funding 213 13.11 References 213 Chapter 14 The Yellow-Legged Asian Hornet: Prediction of the Risk of Invasion and the Study of its Color Variations 219 Claire VILLEMANT, Quentin ROME and Adrien PERRARD 14.1 Introduction 220 14.2 Vespa velutina: some elements of taxonomy and biology 222 14.2.1 A species: 13 colored forms 222 14.2.2 One nest per year 223 14.2.3 Insectivore, but not exclusively 223 14.3 Sampling of specimens 224 14.4. The origin of invasive lineages of V. velutina in France and Korea 225 14.4.1 The history of the invasion explained by genetics 225 14.4.2. A single queen at the origin of the invasive lineage in France .. 226 14.5 Expansion risks in Europe and worldwide 226 14.5.1 Data and methods for inferring range and predicting invasion risk 226 14.5.2 Strong expansion in Europe and the Northern Hemisphere 227 14.6 Origin of color and shape variations 229 14.6.1 The importance of collection specimens 229 14.6.2 Discordance between genetic lineages and colored forms 231 14.7 Conclusion 232 14.8 References 233 Chapter 15 Exploring Temporal Changes in the Composition of Macroalgal Communities by Using Collections 235 Marine ROBUCHON, Éric FEUNTEUN, Romain JULLIARD, Florence ROUSSEAU and Line Le GALL 15.1 On the constitution of macroalgal collections 236 15.1.1 Large seaweeds 236 15.1.2 Algal herbaria 236 15.1.3 Data associated with the herbaria 237 15.1.4 Specimens and scientific evidence 237 15.1.5 The herbarium of the Dinard maritime laboratory 239 15.2 Exploring temporal changes in species distribution 239 15.2.1 Perspectives for exploring temporal changes in species distribution 245 15.3 Exploring temporal changes in community composition 246 15.3.1 Example of the study of the Dinard Herbarium 246 15.3.2 Perspectives for exploring temporal changes in community composition 247 15.4 Conclusion: sampling and analysis strategies for the future 248 15.5 References 249 Chapter 16 Herbaria, Witnesses of the Stakes of Biodiversity Conservation and the Impacts of Global Changes 251 Serge MULLER, Vanessa R. INVERNÓN and Germinal ROUHAN 16.1 Introduction 252 16.2 Evaluation of the floristic richness and conservation issues of territories 254 16.3 Studies of introduction pathways and colonization of invasive exotic plants and pathogens 257 16.4 Analysis of the impact of pollution and changes in air quality 259 16.5 Study of phenological changes in flora as a result of climate change 260 16.6 Conclusion 262 16.7 References 263 Chapter 17 Digital Photography In Natura in Zoology: More Biology in Natural History Collections? 271 Romain GARROUSTE 17.1 Images and collections for comparative biology 272 17.2 Accelerating the process of the incomplete inventory of life 274 17.3 Why more biology in natural history collections? 277 17.4 Images in the natural sciences: a collection like any other? 280 17.5 The Hemiptera of France: an exemplary iconography 282 17.6 Trait databases, query automation and bio-inspiration 282 17.7 Conclusion: a new challenge for natural history 284 17.8 References 285 Chapter 18 The Use of Large Natural History Datasets to Respond to Current Scientific and Societal Issues 289 Anne-Christine MONNET, Thomas HAEVERMANS, Anne-Sophie ARCHAMBEAU, Philippe GRANDCOLAS and Roseli PELLENS 18.1 Introduction 289 18.2 Making data available: a revolution 290 18.3 Challenges for data providers 293 18.3.1 Reading labels or directories 293 18.3.2 Structure of the information related to the specimens 294 18.3.3 The taxonomic framework: moving information 295 18.3.4 The importance of tracing the source of data 296 18.4 The role of access portals 296 18.4.1 The provision standards 297 18.5 The importance of scientific analysis design in appropriating the specificities of data from collections 299 18.5.1 Detecting the biases in collection data: advantages and opportunities for scientific analyses 299 18.5.2 Toward a good balance between the question and the available data 300 18.5.3 Playing the advantage of multiple spatial scales 301 18.6 Moving from raw data to sorted data that can be used for scientific analyses 301 18.6.1 From open data to open science, a responsibility for the traceability of data and operations 303 18.6.2 Toward a necessary reorganization of collaborative work 304 18.7 Conclusion 306 18.8 References 307 Chapter 19 Is There a Need for Biocultural Collections? State of the Art and Perspectives 311 Serge BAHUCHET 19.1 Introduction 311 19.2 Origin of these collections 312 19.2.1 Ethnobotany 312 19.2.2 Ethnology 313 19.3 Collection principles and the function of collections 313 19.3.1 The role of objects in “Maussian” ethnology 313 19.3.2 Ethnobotanical collections 315 19.3.3 Biocultural collections 317 19.4 Principles for the articulation of sets 319 19.5 Description of the collections 324 19.5.1 Ethnobiological specimens 325 19.5.2 Objects and artifacts 329 19.6 What changes? 332 19.7 References 334 Chapter 20 Why Preserve? 337 Véronique ROUCHON 20.1 The museum’s collections: between study and heritage 338 20.2 Disrupting the equilibrium 339 20.3 Preparation and storage 342 20.4 The main principles of conservation 346 20.5 The main principles of conservation being undermined 347 20.6 Multiple values 349 20.7 The scientific value of the collections 351 20.8 Conclusion 357 20.9 References 357 Chapter 21. Collections for Scientific Research in the 21st Century and Beyond 359 Roseli PELLENS 21.1 Collections in the quest for knowledge 359 21.2 Three main kinds of new uses for collections 360 21.2.1 Enriching the life sciences, human sciences and the sciences of the universe with new technologies 360 21.2.2 A pool of information on the environment 360 21.2.3 The era of digital data 362 21.3 Lessons from these new uses 362 21.3.1 The importance of richness and diversity 363 21.3.2 Information at the heart of new research 363 21.3.3 Good conservation and good practices 365 21.3.4 The importance of sets 366 21.4 Collections in 21st century science and beyond 367 21.5 Conclusion 367 21.6 References 369 List of Authors 373 Index 381