Natural resource and environmental conflicts have long been issues confronting human societies. This case-based examination of a wide range of natural resource disputes exposes readers to many contemporary examples that offer reasons for both hope and concern. The Rwandan genocide, the Sudanese civil war, and perpetual instability in the Middle East and Africa: each of these crises have arguably been instigated and maintained by natural resource disputes. China has undertaken a Herculean task to plant hundreds of millions of trees along its margins in an effort to save Beijing from crippling dust storms and halt the expansion of the Gobi desert. Will it work, and is it worth it? These and many other cases of conflict stemming from natural resource or environmental concerns are explained and debated in this up-to-date examination of contemporary and ongoing topics. The book examines conflicts over precious resources and minerals, such as diamonds, oil, water, and fisheries, as well as the pursuit of lesser-known minerals like Coltan and other "rare earth elements"—important resources in our technological age—in remote locations such as Greenland and the Congo. Each topic contains an overview and two position essays from different authors, thereby providing the reader with highly informative and balanced perspectives. Reference entries accompany each topic as well, helping students to better understand each issue. As the world hurtles into the 21st century, these natural resource issues are becoming increasingly important, with all global citizens having a significant stake in how these conflicts arise and play out.

Table of Contents:
Volume 1. International Conflicts, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and the PacificPreface xxv Introduction xxix Volume 1 List of Entries by Region xxxix Volume 1 List of Entries by Topic xliii Part I. International Conflicts 1. Is the World's Increasing Population Stressing the Earth's Resources and Becoming a Major Source of Conflict? 3 Overview 3 M. Troy Burnett and Max Lu The Earth's "Population Problem" Is Overstated and Wrong 6 Jeffery Gentry Overpopulation Stresses Resources, Which in Turn Stresses People 10 Max Lu 2. How Have Natural Resource Conflicts Led to the Demise of Past Civilizations? 14 Overview 14 Mia Bennett The Collapse of Easter Island—A Valuable Lesson for Our Modern World 17 M. Troy Burnett Soil and the Collapse of the Mighty Roman Empire 20 Mark Hecht 3. As the World's Population Becomes More Urbanized, How Are Cities Being Designed to Avoid Conflicts? 24 Overview 24 Robin Morris Collin and Robert William Collin Copenhagen, Bogotá, and Singapore: Three Inspiring Examples of Sustainable Cities 27 Roman Adrian Cybriwsky Making Sustainable Cities—The Need to Focus on Transportation 32 Roman Adrian Cybriwsky 4. How Have Global Warming and Climate Change Promoted Conflict in Pastoral Communities? 35 Overview 35 Troy Sternberg Mongolian Pastoralism, Climate Change, and Conflict 38 Ariell Ahearn and Troy Sternberg Conflict in Syria—Pastoral Communities and Global Warming 40 Troy Sternberg 5. Will Air Quality Be a Source of Regional Conflict? 44 Overview 44 Mia Bennett Conflicts and Air Pollution—The Future Is Here 47 Mia Bennett Air Quality: Hardly Ever a Source of Regional Conflict 51 Bryan Comer 6. What Role Does Ecotourism Play in Natural Resource Conflicts? 56 Overview 56 Barbara McNicol Ecotourism: Cooperation or Bust? 58 Edward Jackiewicz and Olga Govdyak Successful Ecotourism: Inauthentic Tourism Experience versus Integrating Environmental Management and Conservation 63 Barbara McNicol 7. How Do Global Warming and Climate Change Influence a Nation's Security Policy? 67 Overview 67 Bruce E. Johansen Climate Change: An Emerging Concern of National Security 70 M. Troy Burnett War Is Environmentally Obsolete 73 Bruce E. Johansen 8. Is Nuclear the Right Option to Avoid Future Energy Conflicts? 76 Overview 76 Robert Goble and M. Troy Burnett How to Avoid Future Energy Conflicts? Promote Nuclear! 79 Duane Bratt Nuclear Energy Is a Conflict Multiplier 83 M. Troy Burnett 9. Could Conflicts over Water Actually Promote Peace and Stability? 88 Overview 88 J. C. Veilleux and M. Troy Burnett Countries Do Not Go to War over Water 92 J. C. Veilleux Transboundary Water Management—Some Success Stories 95 Mia Bennett 10. What Steps Should Be Taken to Help Provide Access to Clean Water for More People in the World? 99 Overview 99 Dennis Moran and M. Troy Burnett Infrastructure First, Then Better Management 103 Nathan Eidem Infrastructure Is Fine, But We Need to Focus on Regulation, Management, and International Cooperation 105 Coralie Noël 11. To Mitigate Conflicts over Water, Is It Better to Treat Water as a Commodity or a Human Right? 108 Overview 108 M. Troy Burnett and William Osei Water Is, and Always Has Been, a Commodity 112 Mark Hecht Water Should Be a Human Right! 115 John Agnew 12. Which Water Basins Are Presently Sites of the Highest Potential for Conflict? 119 Overview 119 Mia Bennett From Aral Sea to Aral Desert 122 Mia Bennett Moving People, Moving Earth: The Yangtze River and the Three Gorges Dam 125 Mia Bennett 13. Will the International Trade in Hazardous Waste Promote Stability or Conflict? 130 Overview 130 M. Troy Burnett Controversy and Conflict with the Trade in Hazardous Waste 133 Tera Trujillo International Trade of Hazardous Waste Causes Stability 136 Nicole Lomba 14. With Future Conflicts Seemingly Guaranteed, Is a Technological Breakthrough Needed to Avert the Climate Crisis? 139 Overview 139 M. Troy Burnett Necessity Will Compel Technological Innovation 142 Bruce E. Johansen How Can Society Respond to the Climate Crisis? By Changing Our Own Behavior 146 Benjamin K. Sovacool 15. To Mitigate Conflicts over Natural Resources, Is It Better to Promote Preservation or Conservation? 149 Overview 149 M. Troy Burnett Preservation or Conservation, the Government Must Play the Key Role 152 Jacqueline Vaughn Preservation First! 153 Peter Jacques 16. How Does the Illicit Trade in Endangered Species Promote Regional Conflict? 156 Overview 156 Ariana Tran and M. Troy Burnett The Link between Illicit Trade in Endangered Species and Regional Conflict 159 Ariana Tran and M. Troy Burnett The Need for Cooperation in the Illicit Wildlife Trade 162 Cynthia Tafoya and M. Troy Burnett 17. Should Cultural Exceptions Be Made in Whaling Laws? 165 Overview 165 Mia Bennett No! A Dead Whale Is Still a Dead Whale 168 M. Troy Burnett In Defense of Cultural Exceptions for Whaling 171 Mia Bennett 18. How Are Issues and Conflicts over Invasive Species Being Addressed? 176 Overview 176 Susan L. Woodward and Joyce A. Quinn Invasive Species—A Complex Issue with No Simple Solutions 180 Joyce A. Quinn Prevention, Eradication, and Education 187 Susan L. Woodward 19. How Does the Loss of Biodiversity Promote Conflict? 195 Overview 195 M. Troy Burnett Biodiversity and Conflict: Issues and Resolutions 197 Jason Macleod Conflict in Kenya—The Unintended Consequences of Biodiversity Conservation 200 M. Troy Burnett 20. Are Debt-for-Nature Swaps a Viable Means to Promote Stability in the Developing World? 204 Overview 204 M. Troy Burnett A Critical View of Debt-for-Nature Swaps 207 Mia Bennett Though Far from Ideal, Debt-for-Nature Swaps Provide One Creative Solution to the Debt-Habitat Destruction Problem 210 M. Troy Burnett Part II. Africa 21. Was the Rwandan Genocide of 1994 a Result of Conflict over Natural Resources? 217 Overview 217 William von Lopik The Rwandan Genocide: A Complex Confluence of Causal Factors 219 M. Troy Burnett The Role of Environmental Factors in the Rwandan Genocide 222 William Van Lopik 22. What Role Have Natural Resources Played in the Sudanese Civil War? 225 Overview 225 M. Troy Burnett Oil in the Sudan: A Conflict Multiplier, Not the Sole Cause 228 Meredith DeBoom Conflict in Darfur—The Resource Perspective 231 M. Troy Burnett 23. Do Diamonds Have a Negative Influence on Development in Africa? 236 Overview 236 Laura Kerrigan and Jacob C. Brenner Diamond Mining and Violence on the African Continent 239 Laura Kerrigan and Jacob C. Brenner Diamond Mining: A Positive View 243 M. Troy Burnett 24. Will the Mining of Coltan in the Congo Further Destabilize the Region? 246 Overview 246 M. Troy Burnett The Mining of Coltan in the DRC: The Same Sad Story of Exploitation and Conflict 249 Joseph Oppong and M. Troy Burnett With Attention and Guidance Coltan Mining Can Benefit the DRC 252 Olga Govdyak and Edward Jackiewicz 25. How Will the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam Affect Peace in the Region? 254 Overview 254 Jennifer C. Veilleux and M. Troy Burnett The Contentious GERD: A Thorn in the Side of Nile Basin Politics 257 M. Troy Burnett The Renaissance Dam—A Platform for Peace 261 Jennifer C. Veilleux 26. Does the Kimberley Process Work? 264 Overview 264 M. Troy Burnett The Kimberley Process Is Broken 266 Meredith DeBoom In Defense of the Kimberley Process 270 M. Troy Burnett 27. How Does China's Increasing Demand for Natural Resources Affect Stability in Africa? 273 Overview 273 Mia Bennett China's Appetite for Resources Promotes Instability in Africa 276 Mia Bennett The Chinese in Africa—Altruistic, No! But Benign and Potentially Stabilizing 279 M. Troy Burnett 28. How Have Large-Scale Conservation Efforts Promoted Conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa? 282 Overview 282 M. Troy Burnett and Gregory Maddox Conservation Development Has Destabilized Africa 285 Gregory Maddux The Promise and the Potential of Conservation in Africa 288 Gregory Maddux Part III. Asia and the Pacific 29. Can It Be Argued That the Wealth Generated from Oil Is a Primary Cause of the Disempowerment of Women in the Middle East? 295 Overview 295 M. Troy Burnett Oil, Religion, Islamic Kinship, and the Disempowerment of Middle Eastern Women 297 Kirsten Von Meter Oil Wealth Expands Opportunities for Women in the Middle East 299 Natalie Koch 30. Is the Jordan River a Source of Regional Conflict or Stability? 303 Overview 303 M. Troy Burnett The Jordan River: A Source of Conflict 305 Amy Hackney Blackwell The Jordan River as a Nexus for Peaceful Cooperation 308 Chris Hrynkow 31. What Impact Does Control of Valuable Resources Have on Politics in the Middle East? 312 Overview 312 Larry Simpson and M. Troy Burnett It's Not Just about Religion, But Economics as Well 315 Spencer Tucker Oil and Water—The Resource Disputes That Contribute to Conflicts in the Middle East 318 Larry Simpson 32. Is China's Green Great Wall an Adequate Solution to Desertification? 321 Overview 321 Bruce E. Johansen The Great Green Wall and Its Many Cracks 324 Bruce E. Johansen The Great Green Wall—A Herculean Effort 326 M. Troy Burnett 33. What Conflicts Have Arisen as a Result of China's Building of the Three Gorges Dam? 331 Overview 331 Allen Raichelle The Environmental Conflict over the Three Gorges 334 Elizabeth J. Leppman Though Controversial and the Source of External and Internal Conflicts, Building the Dam Was Necessary! 337 Charles Fuller 34. How Can Conflicts Be Avoided with Japan's Fishing Industry? 341 Overview 341 Tracy Dobson and M. Troy Burnett Thinking Outside the Sea: How to Reduce Conflict with Japanese Seafood 343 Lynn Galvin Better Management Is Needed to Sustain Japanese Fisheries 346 Riley Walters 35. Is the Crisis in Australia's Murray-Darling Basin the Result of Climate Change or the Decisions and Actions of Humans? 348 Overview 348 Bruce E. Johansen Australia's Drought and Changing Atmospheric Circulation Patterns 351 Bruce E. Johansen Human Actions are the Root of the Crisis in the Murray-Darling Basin 353 Mia Bennett 36. Is Sustainable Development and Conservation or Further Resource Exploitation and Conflict the Future in Borneo? 357 Overview 357 M. Troy Burnett Tensions Mount as Destruction of Borneo Continues 359 Bruce E. Johansen Development, Stability, and Conservation Are Possible in Borneo 361 Donald Rallis 37. Was the Conflict in East Timor, Indonesia, the Direct Result of Natural Resources? 364 Overview 364 M. Troy Burnett East Timor: A Conflict Rooted in Natural Resources 366 Micah Fisher Nationalism, Geopolitics, and the Bleeding of East Timor 369 Keith Bettinger 38. Is the Resource of the Mekong River Basin a Potential for Regional Conflict? 374 Overview 374 Jennifer C. Veilleux The Potential for Conflict in the Mekong River Basin 377 Aaron Williams and M. Troy Burnett Cooperation and Coordination in the Mekong River Basin 380 Jennifer C. Veilleux 39. Will the Ganges River Be a Source of Regional Conflict between India and Bangladesh? 383 Overview 383 Mark Hecht Ganges River as the Source of Regional Conflict between India and Bangladesh 386 Edward Jackiewicz For Now, Peace and Stability 390 Mia Bennett 40. How Have Natural Resources Caused Political Instability in Post-Communist Central Asia? 394 Overview 394 M. Troy Burnett Tensions in Post-Communist Central Asia—The Case of the Ferghana Valley 397 Mia Bennett A Fragile Stability in Central Asia 400 Natalie Koch Glossary 405 Volume 1 Bibliography 427 About the Editor and Contributors 457 Volume 2. The Americas, Europe, and Key ConceptsPreface Introduction Volume 2 List of Entries by Region Volume 2 List of Entries by Topic Part I. North America and Europe 1. Can Future Energy Conflicts Be Avoided by the U.S. Government's Support and Promotion of Green Technologies? Overview Harry Henderson and M. Troy Burnett Governments Must Take the Lead to Promote Green Technologies Dan L. McNally Let Markets Determine the Future of Energy William T. Bogart 2. Was the Canadian-Spanish Turbot Fish Conflict an Anomaly or a Harbinger of Things to Come? Overview Mark Hecht Canadian Turbot War as a Sign of Things to Come Mark Hecht The Turbot War—The Conflict That Has Served to Minimize Conflict M. Troy Burnett 3. How Have National Park Systems Fomented Conflict with Aboriginal Peoples? Overview Barbara McNicol National Parks and the Displacement of Aboriginal Peoples Kelly Kay Changing Relationships: Joint Management in National Parks Barbara McNicol 4. Has Montana Mismanaged Its Resources? Overview Mark Hecht Not-So-Pristine Montana—Environmental Destruction and the Mismanagement of Natural Resources Mark Hecht Mismanagement in Montana—A Fault with Mining in the United States Gary Goreham and M. Troy Burnett 5. How Has Environmental Justice and Toxic Racism Been a Source of Social Conflict in the United States? Overview Jason D. MacLeod Environmental Justice: Shaking Up the Modern Environmental Movement Kelly Kay Pollution's Racist Gaze: Environmental Justice and Toxic Racism Gerardo Del Guercio 6. To Minimize Conflict in the Circumpolar North, Should the Northwest Passage Be Considered Canadian Sovereign Territory or an International Strait? Overview M. Troy Burnett Pragmatic Cooperation to Minimize Conflict over the Passage Elizabeth Elliot-Meisel You Want to Minimize Conflict . . . Confirm Canada's Claim to the Northwest Passage M. Troy Burnett 7. What Social Conflicts Have Resulted from the United States' Enactment of the Endangered Species Act? Overview M. Troy Burnett The Endangered Species Act and Social Conflict Jason Macleod The ESA—A Hotbed of Conflict Kelly Kay 8. What Is the Best Way to Minimize Conflict over New England Fisheries? Overview M. Troy Burnett New Strategies for Minimizing Conflict and Restoring New England Fisheries Peter Baker The Fisherperson's Solution: Sector Management Eric Brazer Jr. 9. What Role Have International Peace Parks/Transboundary Protected Areas Played in Lessening International Conflicts? Overview Jake Brenner International Peace Parks—Good for the Environment and People Chris Hrynkow Transboundary Protected Areas—The United States–Mexico Case Jake Brenner 10. How Has the Proposed Keystone Pipeline Been a Source of Conflict between the United States and Canada? Overview Mia Bennett Harsh Resistance to the Keystone Pipeline Bruce E. Johansen How Keystone Has Unnecessarily Soured Relations between Canada and the United States Mia Bennett 11. Do the Benefits of Exploiting Alberta's Oil Sands Outweigh the Adverse Environmental Effects and Political Controversy? Overview Mia Bennett Not Worth the Headache! Bruce E. Johansen The Environmental Impacts Are High, but the Social and Economic Benefits Are Worth It M. Troy Burnett 12. What Is the Primary Cause of Conflict in the Klamath Basin? Overview Brian Chaffin Conflict in the Klamath Basin: Farmers vs. Conservationists vs. First Nations Kelly Kay Restoring Ecosystem Function and Repairing Communities Brian Chaffin 13. How Should the Colorado River Basin Be Managed to Mitigate Interstate Conflict? Overview Leann Sullivan The Difficult Task of Managing a Basin with Multiple Stakeholders M. Troy Burnett Colorado Basin Management—A Simmering Conflict Leann Sullivan 14. Is the Exploitation of Greenland's Rare Earth Elements Worth the Environmental Costs? Overview Mia Bennett The Mining of Greenland's Rare Earths—Worth the Cost Mark Hecht Nunarput utoqqarsuanngoravit (You, Our Ancient Land) M. Troy Burnett 15. Do the Economic Benefits of Hydraulic Fracturing Outweigh the Risks? Overview David E. Newton The Benefits of Fracking Bruce Everett The High Cost of Fracking John Rumpler 16. Will Global Warming and the Thawing of the Arctic Promote Conflict or Cooperation? Overview Bruce E. Johansen and M. Troy Burnett The Potential for Conflict in the Arctic Betsy Baker Warming and the Circumpolar North—An Optimistic Perspective Barry Zellen 17. To Avoid Conflicts, How Should California Manage Its Water Resources? Overview M. Troy Burnett California's Water Crisis—The Need to Share the Burden Zachary Smith and Jane Whitmire To Avoid Conflict the Environmental Issues Must Be Addressed Grenetta Thomassey 18. Will the Drilling of Oil in the Gulf of Mexico Be a Source of Regional Conflict between Domestic Stakeholders in the United States? Overview Mia Bennett Environmental Devastation as the Source of Conflict in the Gulf of Mexico Albert C. Hine The Simmering Conflict in the Gulf of Mexico Mia Bennett Part II. Central/South America and the Caribbean 19. Sitting atop a Large Oil Reserve, How Should Ecuador's Yasuní National Park Be Managed? Overview M. Troy Burnett Ecuador Has Little Choice: Develop the Resource! Ariana Tran and M. Troy Burnett Yasuní Park, Its Biodiversity and People Need to Be Preserved Cynthia Tafoya and M. Troy Burnett 20. Is the Conflict in Chiapas, Mexico, between the Zapatistas and the Mexican Government Primarily a Conflict over Natural Resources? Overview M. Troy Burnett The Chiapas Conflict: A Battle for Indigenous Recognition and Rights Lindsay Naylor The Conflict in Chiapas: The Role of Natural Resources William Van Lopik 21. How Do Environmental Conditions and Resource Management Explain the Differing Levels of Conflict/Crisis in Haiti and the Dominican Republic? Overview Mia Bennett Hispaniola: An Island Divided Cynthia Tafoya and Edward Jackiewicz One Island, Two Separate Worlds M. Troy Burnett and Paul Bartel 22. Is Oil the Main Source of the Conflict over the Falkland Islands? Overview M. Troy Burnett There Is No Single Cause for the Ongoing Conflict over the Falklands Camille Gaskin-Reyes Oil in the Falklands: A Major Part of the Problem M. Troy Burnett 23. Was the Mayan Civilization Brought Down by a Natural Resource Crisis? Overview Peter Matthews and M. Troy Burnett The Mayan Collapse—A Constellation of Social and Environmental Factors Anabel Ford War, Disease, Famine, Natural Resources—The Usual Suspects in the Collapse of the Mayan Civilization Joel Palka 24. How Did Water Rights Become a Source of Conflict between the Quechua People and the Government in Peru's Colca Valley? Overview Paul H. Gelles Conflict in the Colca—The Story of the Eleven Heroes Paul H. Gelles Compromise and Recovery in the Colca Valley Paul H. Gelles 25. How Have Plans to Build Hydroelectric Dams in the Patagonia Region Been a Source of Conflict? Overview M. Troy Burnett Controversies Aside, Chile and the Region Need Power Dawn M. Drake Dams in Patagonia—Controversial and Unsustainable! Leann Sullivan 26. How Should the Natural Resources of the Amazon Rainforest Be Managed to Avoid Conflict? Overview M. Troy Burnett Ending the Destruction, Conserving the Forest, and Promoting Cooperation Rhett A. Butler Awareness of the True Value of the Rainforest Will Promote Conservation and Cooperation Margaret Lowman Key Concepts Afforestation Agenda 21 Amazon Conservation Team Amazon Rainforest Amazon River Amnesty International Amu Darya Antienvironmental Movement Arctic Council Arctic Ocean Association for the Conservation of Amazonian Wildlife Association of Southeast Asian Nations Augusto Pinochet Bedouins Biomes Borneo Bureau of Land Management Cap and Trade Carbon Sequestration Carbon Taxes Carrying Capacity Carson, Rachel Chernobyl Disaster Chukchi Climate Change Coal Cold War Comparative Advantage Conflict Diamonds Conservation International Convention on Biological Diversity Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species Correa, Rafael Dams: Environmental Impacts Darfur Dead Sea Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill (2010) Defenders of Wildlife Deforestation Demographic Transition Model Desertification Drought Earth Summit East Timor Easter Island Ecofeminism Ecosystem Services Ecosystems Ecotourism El Niño Endangered Species Endangered Species Act (1973) Environmental Determinism Environmental Ethics Environmental Impact Statements Environmental Justice Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Refugees Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organization Exclusive Economic Zone Extinction Fertile Crescent Fish and Wildlife Service Forest Conservation Forest Stewardship Council Fossil Fuels Fossil Fuels and Climate Change Freshwater Ganges River Valley Glacier National Park Global Environmental Monitoring System Global Warming Globalization Greenhouse Effect Greenhouse Gases Greenland Greenpeace Gross Domestic Product Groundwater Gulf Hypoxia Harappan Civilization Hutu Hydraulic Fracturing ("Fracking") Indigenous Indigenous Peoples and Premodern Claims Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change International Union for Conservation of Nature International Whaling Commission Intifada Inuit Inuit Brotherhood (Inuit Ataqatigiit) Invasive Species Irredentism Janjaweed Japan: Environment Jordan River Kagame, Paul Kyoto Protocol Los Angeles River Lost Boys Malthusian Theory Marcos, Subcomandante Marine Life, Fisheries, and Global Warming Marine Pollution Montreal Protocol Mugabe, Robert National Center for Atmospheric Research National Coalition for Marine Conservation Natural Gas Natural Resources Defense Council Nature Conservancy Neocolonialism Neoliberalism Nile River Basin Cooperative Framework Agreement Nongovernmental Organizations Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries Overfishing Overpopulation Palm Oil Pastoralism Petroleum (Oil) Population Geography Rainforest Action Network Rainforests Renewable Energy Republics of the Former Soviet Union Resource Curse Revolutionary United Front Rwandan Patriotic Front Sharia Sierra Club Silent Spring (1962) Slash-and-Burn Agriculture Southern African Development Community Sovereignty Sudan Liberation Army Suharto Superfund Sustainable Development Sustainable Forestry Syr Darya River Tar Sands Tutsi United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization United Nations Environment Programme United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Wildlife and Environment Society of Southern Africa World Wildlife Fund Zapatista National Liberation Army Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front Glossary Volume 2 Bibliography About the Editor and Contributors Index