This volume is devoted principally to the theme of behavioral develop- ment. The study of ontogeny has attracted some of the most bitter and protracted controversies in the whole field of ethology and psychology. This is partly because the arguments have reflected more general and continuing ideological battles about nature and nurture. In the opening essay, Oppenheim shows how these debates have recurred in much the same form over the last century. His chapter also brings out a more worrying feature of such argument. He demonstrates that authors who are well known for their strongly held partisan views have written in much more balanced ways than is usually admitted. Although the ex- cluded middle is familiar enough in academic argument, the dynamic tensions actually present in developing systems may be particularly prone to polarize debate about what is actually happening. This point is elegantly explored by Oyama in her essay on her concept of maturation.

Table of Contents:
1 Preformation and Epigenesis in the Origins of the Nervous System and Behavior: Issues, Concepts, and Their History.- I. Abstract.- II. Introduction.- III. Preformation and Epigenesis in the 18th Century.- IV. Preformation and Epigenesis in the 19th Century.- V. Recapitulation Theory and Embryology.- VI. Neopreformation, Neoepigenesis, and the Birth of Experimental Embryology.- VII. Roux's Contribution to the "Heredity-Environment" Question.- VIII. Weismann and the Role of the Environment in Development.- IX. Preformation and Epigenesis: A Final Resolution of Opposing Views (1900).- X. Genetics, Eugenics, and Instinct: Origins and Early Influences until 1910.- XI. Mendelian Genetics, Eugenics, and Instincts: Implications for Neurobehavioral Development (1910-1920).- XII. The Anti-instinct Movement and the Issue of Heredity vs. Environment (1920-1940).- XIII. A. Gesell, Infant Development, and the Issue of Maturation vs. Learning: A New Twist to the Heredity-Environment Controversy.- XIV. Neuroembryology and the Embryonic Origins of Behavior.- XV. Conclusions and Summary.- XVI. Acknowledgments.- XVII. References.- 2 A Reformulation of the Idea of Maturation.- I. Abstract.- II. Introduction.- III. Maturation as a Dichotomous Concept.- A. Traditional Oppositions.- B. "Genetic Determination" and the Analytical Mode.- IV. Coaction in Ontogenesis.- A. The Genetic Code.- B. Species Typicality.- C. Developmental Systems: A Link between Phylogeny and Ontogeny.- V. Maturation as Species-Typical Developmental Systems.- VI. Conclusion.- VII. Acknowledgment.- VIII. References.- 3 Ontogeny: Toward A General Theoretical Framework for Ethology.- I. Abstract.- II. Introduction.- III. Background.- A. The Determinants of Behavior.- B. Requirements of an Ethological Framework.- IV. Framework for Ontogeny.- A. Analysis of Behavioral Control.- B. Analysis of Changes in Control.- C. Final Notes on the Framework.- V. Notes on the Remaining Framework for Ethology.- A. Perpetuation.- B. Phylogeny.- VI. Overview.- VII. Acknowledgments.- VIII. References.- 4 Motivation: A New Perspective on Some old Ideas Frederick.- I. Abstract.- II. Introduction.- A. Background.- B. Incentives and Motivation.- C. Incentives, Cognition, and Cognitive Factors.- III. Motivational Systems.- A. Introduction.- B. Elicitation of Ingestive Behavior.- C. Temperature-Regulating Behavior.- D. Conspecifics as Incentives.- IV. How Does Motivation Develop?.- A. Introduction.- B. Incentive Motivation.- C. Conspecifics and Incentives.- D. From Suckling to Independent Feeding.- V. Motivation, Learning, and Goal-Directed Activities.- VI. Competition.- VII. Foraging.- VIII. Conclusion.- IX. Acknowledgments.- X. References.- 5 Problems in Animal Perception and Learning and their Implications for Models of Imprinting.- I. Abstract.- II. The Internal Representation as an Explanation of Imprinting.- III. Recognition and the Organization of Behavior.- A. The Neurophysiology of Perception.- B. Perception and Behavioral Control.- C. The Context of Recognition in the Imprinted Bird.- IV. The Acquisition and Organization of a Representation.- A. The Cognitive Approach to Conditioning.- B. Conditioning and Spatial Representation.- C. The Representation of an Imprinted Object.- V. Conclusions.- VI. Acknowledgments.- VII. References.- 6 Ontogeny of Learning.- I. Abstract.- II. Introduction.- III. The Comparative Analysis of Learning.- A. Traditional Psychological and Ethological Premises.- B. The Paradigm Crisis in Learning.- C. Taste-Aversion Learning and Autoshape Learning.- D. Taste-Aversion Learning: General or Unique Process?.- IV. The Psychological Analysis of Learning: Common Comparative and Ontogenetic Research Strategies.- A. Introduction.- B. Phylogenetic and Ontogenetic Scales of Learning.- C. General Principle Analysis of Learning.- D. The Behavioral Process Analysis of Learning.- V. Associative Learning: Recent Formulations.- A. Introduction.- B. Cognitive View of Conditioning.- C. Autoshaping: Reevaluation of the Traditional Two-Factor Theory of Learning.- VI. The Ontogeny of Associative Learning.- A. Introduction.- B. Associative Learning during Development.- C. Nonassociative Influence on Learning.- D. Associative Learning Influences on Behavior.- VII. Conclusions.- VIII. Acknowledgments.- IX. References.- 7 Learning and Foraging Behavior.- I. Abstract.- II. Introduction.- III. Psychological Research on Animal Learning.- A. The Matching Law.- B. Learning Sets.- C. Taste-Aversion Learning.- D. Summary.- IV. Foraging Ecology and Learning.- A. Field Studies of Individual Foraging Behavior.- B. Optimal Foraging Theory.- V. Heterosis.- A. Contributions of Ecology to Psychology.- B. Paradigms, Phenomena, Processes, and Principles of Learning.- C. Contributions of Psychology to Ecology.- VI. Barriers to Interdisciplinary Progress.- VII. Acknowledgments.- VIII. References.- 8 Evolutionary Issues in Development of Behavioral Flexibility.- I. Abstract.- II. Introduction.- III. How Enrichment Affects Behavioral Capacities.- IV. Ecology and Evolution of Enrichment-Induced Plasticity.- V. Evidence.- A. Mammalian Hibernation and Winter Inactivity.- B. Population Quality and Dispersal.- VI. Suggestions for Research.- VII. Conclusions.- VIII. Acknowledgments.- IX. References.- 9 Intraspecific Variations in Mating Strategy.- I. Abstract.- II. Introduction.- III. Definitions.- IV. Alternative Mating Strategies.- V. Decision Processes in Strategy Choice.- VI. Proximate Factors.- A. The Biological Context.- B. Primary Variables.- C. Modifier Variables.- D. Extrinsic Variables.- E. Feedback Consequences of Strategy Choice.- VII. Ultimate (Evolutionary) Explanations.- A. Functional Explanations.- B. Genetic Determinism.- VIII. Conclusions.- IX. Acknowledgments.- X. References.- 10 Cooperation, Altruism, and Restraint in the Reproduction of Carnivores.- I. Abstract.- II. Introduction.- III. Family Canidae.- A. Red and Arctic Foxes.- B. Jackals.- C. Coyotes.- D. Wolves.- E. Dingo.- F. Dhole.- G. African Wild Dogs.- IV. Family Felidae.- A. Domestic Cats.- B. Lions.- V. Family Hyaenidae.- VI. Family Viverridae.- A. Dwarf Mongoose.- B. Banded Mongoose.- VII. Family Procyonidae.- VIII. Discussion.- IX. Acknowledgments.- X. References.- 11 Reproductive Value and Behavioral Strategies: Coming of Age in Monkeys And Horses.- I. Abstract.- II. Concept of Reproductive Value.- III. Case Studies.- A. Rhesus Monkeys.- B. Feral Horses.- IV. Discussion.- V. Summary.- VI. Acknowledgments.- VII. References.- 12 Changes with Age in the Strategy of Social Behavior.- I. Abstract.- II. Introduction.- III. Kin Selection.- IV. On Eligibility and Generosity.- A. Reproductive Value.- B. Age and Eligibility.- C. On Impressing One's Eligibility.- D. Generosity.- V. Altruism, Cooperation, and Competition.- VI. Matrix of Social Interactions.- VII. Appendix: Symbols Used in This Chapter.- VIII. Acknowledgments.- IX. References.