This text combines new and time-tested approaches to working with struggling readers of all ages, and includes practical instructional strategies, assessment tools, discussion of the research, and an informal reading inventory that students can use immediately.  The Sixth Edition of this well-respected text distills many different approaches to teaching students with reading problems and presents them in an accessible, balanced, and readable format. Reading Problems is extremely practical, presenting many informal assessment tools and strategies. Yet it also presents research on intervention programs and multicultural strategies, and extensive descriptions of tests. The needs of adolescents and adults are also emphasized.  

Table of Contents:
Contents   Preface iii 1 Overview of Reading and Reading Problems 1 Introduction 2 Reading Problems: A National Dilemma 3 National Reading Levels 4 Reading Needs in Today’s World 5 Need for Early Identification and Instruction 5 Where Do Children with Reading Problems Receive Help? 7 Different Models of Reading Assessment and Instruction 7 Response-to-Intervention 7 The Components Model of Reading 10 Differentiated Instruction 11 How Does a Student Construct Meaning in Reading? 13 Contribution of the Reader 14 Contribution of the Written Material 16 Contribution of the Reading Situation 16 Key Elements of Teaching Reading 17 Early Literacy 17 Word Recognition 17 Reading Fluency 17 Reading Comprehension 17 Reading Vocabulary 18 Reading-Writing Connection 19 Enjoyment and Appreciation 19 The Website for This Book 19 Summary 19 References 20 2 Factors Associated with Reading Disability 22 Introduction 23 Neurological and Cognitive Factors 23 iii     iv CONTENTS Environmental Factors 25 The Home Environment 25 The School Environment 26 The Social Environment 27 Cultural Environment 28 Assessing Environmental Factors 29 Emotional Factors 29 Emotional Problems 31 Assessing Emotional and Behavioral Factors 31 Intelligence and Intellectual Factors 31 Definitions of Intelligence 31 Cultural Bias in the Measurement of Intelligence 33 Using Intelligence Tests to Determine the Existence of a Reading Disability 33 Concerns about Using Intelligence Tests to Determine a Reading Disability 34 Language Factors 36 Oral and Written Language 36 Receptive and Expressive Language 37 Systems of Oral Language 37 Speech Problems and Language Disorders 38 English Language Learners 40 Assessing Language Development 40 Physical Factors 40 Hearing Impairment 40 Visual Impairment 41 Gender Differences 43 Other Physical Problems 43 Summary 44 References 45 3 Obtaining Background Information 49 Introduction 50 Information about the Environment 50 Home Environment 51 School Environment 53 Social and Cultural Environments 57     Contents v Information about the Individual 58 Emotional Information 58 Information about Potential (Intelligence) 60 Physical Information 60 Information about Language Development 62 Methods of Collecting Information 63 Interview and Questionnaire 64 Informal Talks 65 School Records and Materials 66 Observation during Reading Lessons 66 Summary 67 References 67 4 Assessing Reading: Formal Measures 70 Introduction 71 Using Both Formal and Informal Assessment 71 Norm-Referenced Tests 72 Criterion-Referenced Tests 73 Bias in Testing 73 Ethical Considerations 73 Scores on Norm-Referenced Tests 74 Standardization, Validity, and Reliability 75 Tests of General Reading Assessment 76 Group Survey Tests 77 Individual Survey Tests 79 Normed Oral Reading Tests 82 Diagnostic Reading Tests 83 Diagnostic Reading Batteries 83 Diagnostic Tests of Specific Areas 86 Measuring Intelligence 87 Using Intelligence Test Information in Reading Assessment 88 Intelligence Tests that Should Be Administered by Psychologists 89 Intelligence Tests that Can Be Administered by Teachers and Reading Specialists 92 Interpreting Intelligence Test Scores 94 Summary 95 References 95     vi CONTENTS 5 Using an Informal Reading Inventory for Assessment 100 Introduction 101 General Diagnostic Questions: An Overview 101 Does the Student Have a Reading Problem and How Severe Is It? 101 What Is the General Area of the Reading Problem? 102 Overview of Informal Assessment Measures 104 Informal Reading Inventory 104 Obtaining Answers to General Diagnostic Questions 105 Administering and Scoring the Informal Reading Inventory 106 Interpreting the Score of the IRI 118 Special Issues and Options in Using IRIs 125 Combining IRI Assessment with Think-Alouds 128 Summary 131 References 132 6 Providing Instructional Support for Struggling Readers 134 Introduction 135 Effective Instruction for Struggling Readers 135 Early Intervention Programs 136 Reading Recovery 136 Early Steps 137 Reading Rescue 137 Howard Street Tutoring Model 138 Book Buddies 138 The Boulder Project 138 Early Intervention in Reading 139 First-Grade Group Intervention 139 Reading Club 139 The Anna Plan 140 Literacy Booster Groups 140 Cross-Age Tutoring 140 Interventions for Older Students 141 Third-Grade Intervention 141 The Memphis Comprehension Framework 141     Contents vii Project Success 142 Sixth-Grade Reading Class 142 Intervention Within the Classroom 142 Cross-Age Tutoring 143 Literacy Tutoring for Adolescents 143 Readers’ Workshop 144 Total School or Classroom Interventions 144 Success for All 144 Four-Blocks Literacy Model 145 Fluency-Oriented Reading Program 146 Guidelines for Teaching Students Struggling with Literacy 146 Emphasize Reading 146 Teach Students the Strategies that Good Readers Use 150 Make Assessment an Ongoing Component of Instruction 152 Provide a Balanced Instructional Framework 154 Provide a Consistent Instructional Structure and Use Time Effectively 155 Provide Time for Word Study and Fluency Development 155 Include Writing as Part of the Lesson Structure 156 Keep the Size of the Group as Small as Possible 156 Coordinate Intervention Instruction and Classroom Instruction 157 Application of Common Intervention Elements to Program Design 158 Summary 159 References 160 7 Early Literacy 166 Introduction 167 Early Literacy Concepts 167 Oral Language Development 168 Listening Comprehension 169 Print Knowledge 170 Environmental Print 171 Alphabet Knowledge 172 Phonemic Awareness 173 Short-Term Phonological Memory 174 Rapid Naming 176 Visual Memory 176 Visual Perceptual Skills 177 Strategies to Develop Early Literacy Concepts 177 Oral Language Development 178 Print Knowledge 181 Alphabet Knowledge and Phonemic Awareness 183   viii CONTENTS Beginning Reading Vocabulary 186 Summary 186 References 187 8 Improving Word Recognition Accuracy 190 Introduction 191 Stages of Word Recognition Development 191 Strategies for Identifying Words 192 Assessing Phonics Strategies 193 Miscue Analysis 193 Tests of Phonics Patterns 193 Teaching Phonics Strategies 195 Letter-Sound Relationships 195 Organizing Phonics Instruction 196 Decoding Through Analogy 198 Combining Phonics and Meaning 200 Making Students Aware of Their Strategies 201 Dealing with Exceptions 201 Ideas for Practicing Phonics 202 Teaching Multisyllable Words 203 Assessing Structural Analysis Strategies 206 Teaching Structural Analysis Strategies 207 Assessing Context Strategies 208 Miscue Analysis 209 Comparison of Words Recognized in Lists and Passages 209 Teaching Context Strategies 209 Encouraging Students to Monitor for Meaning 210 Using Cloze 210 Summary 211 References 211     Contents ix 9 Improving Reading Fluency 214 Introduction 215 Role of Fluency in the Reading Process 215 Assessing Word Recognition Fluency 216 Listening to Students Read Orally 216 Determining Reading Rate 217 Timed Administration of Word Lists 218 Strategies for Developing Fluency in Context 219 Promoting Wide Reading of Easy Text 219 Using Patterned Books 221 Assisted Oral Reading 223 Repeated Readings 225 Performance Reading 227 The Language Experience Approach 228 Making Oral and Silent Reading Effective 229 Fluency Development Lesson 231 Strategies for Developing Sight Words in Isolation 231 Choosing Words for Instructional Focus 232 Guidelines for Teaching Sight Words 232 Strategies for Focusing on Words 233 Mastering Function Words 236 Dealing with Reversals 237 The Curious George Strategy 237 Summary 239 References 240 10 Improving Vocabulary Development and Listening Comprehension 243 Introduction 244 Importance of Language to Reading 244 Causes of Problems with Language 244 Language Disability and Delay 244 Lack of Reading 245 Lack of a Rich Language Environment 245     x CONTENTS Assessing Language Abilities 245 Informal Measures 245 Formal Measures 248 Conditions that Foster Language Learning 248 Exposure to Rich Language 249 Active Participation 250 Planning for Vocabulary and Language Learning 250 Making Connections 250 Strategies for Fostering Language: Listening Comprehension 252 Reading Books to Students 252 Paired Story Reading 253 Direct Listening-Thinking Activity 253 Sentence Stretchers 254 Encouraging Verbal Expression 254 Strategies for Fostering Language: Meaning Vocabulary 256 Introducing Words Before Reading 257 Practicing and Reinforcing Meaning Vocabulary 259 Fostering Vocabulary Learning through Rich Literate Experiences 260 Using Strategies to Figure Out Unknown Words 263 Using Poetry to Develop Language 269 Summary 271 References 271 11 Improving Comprehension of Narrative Text 274 Introduction 275 Effective Reading Comprehension 275 The Purpose of Reading Is Comprehension 275 Comprehension Is an Active and Accurate Process 275 Comprehension Uses Background Knowledge 276 Comprehension Requires Higher-Level Thinking 277 Comprehending Narrative Materials 277 Narratives Inspire Imaginative Personal Responses 277 Narratives Have Story Organization 278 Assessing Abilities with Narrative Text 279 Measuring General Comprehension Ability 279 Judging the Comprehension of Specific Materials 280 A Strategic Approach to Teaching Reading Comprehension 282     Contents xi Strategies for Improving Comprehension before Reading 283 Building Background Knowledge 283 Making Predictions about Text 284 Reading a Story to Students 286 Strategies for Improving Comprehension during Reading 287 The Directed Reading-Thinking Activity 287 Monitoring Responses to Reading 291 Making Mental Images 291 Constructing Content-Free Questions 293 Using Discussion Cards 294 Strategies for Improving Comprehension after Reading 296 Comprehension Strategies that Develop an Understanding of Story Structure 296 Comprehension Strategies that Nurture Personal Response 299 Connecting the Literacy Experience 301 Conceptually Connected Instruction Using Themes 301 Studying Different Genres 303 Summary 303 References 305 12 Improving Comprehension of Informational Text 308 Introduction 309 Nature of Informational Text 309 Types of Informational Text 309 Difficulties Presented by Informational Text 310 Importance of Informational Text 311 Assessing Abilities with Informational Text 311 Focusing the Informal Reading Inventory on Informational Text 311 Assessing the Use of Background Knowledge 312 Assessing Comprehension Monitoring 312 Assessing Ability to Transform Text for Studying 313 Strategies for Helping Students Read Informational Text 313 Strategies for Combining Prior Knowledge with Informational Text 314 Strategies for Monitoring the Comprehension of Informational Text 319 Content-Free Questions 320 Question Answer Relationships 328 Strategies for Transforming Informational Text 329     xii CONTENTS Summary 332 References 335 13 Reading and Writing 337 Introduction 338 Importance of Teaching Writing 338 Assessing Writing 339 Writing Instruction 340 Writing Process 340 Supporting Students’ Writing 343 Personal Communication 345 Written Conversations 345 Personal Journals 347 Strategies for Integrating Reading and Writing 347 Writing and Reading Narrative Text 348 Writing and Reading Informational Text 352 Writing with Poetry 354 Developing the Ability to Spell 356 Spelling Development 358 Spelling Assessment 359 Spelling Instruction 361 Handwriting 362 Summary 363 References 364 14 Literacy Instruction for Diverse Populations: Multicultural Diversity, English Language Learners, Parents and Families, Adolescents, and Adults with Reading Problems 367 Introduction 368 Literacy in a Multicultural Society 368 Diverse Cultural Views about Reading 368 Teaching Children from Diverse Cultures 369     Contents xiii English Language Learners 372 Who Are ELLs? 372 Methods for Teaching ELLs 373 Teaching Reading to ELLs 373 Strategies for Teaching Reading to ELL Students 374 The Important Role of Parents and Family in Fostering Literacy 376 Parent Workshops 376 Adolescents with Reading Problems 377 Characteristics of Adolescents with Reading Problems 378 Special Considerations at the Secondary Level 378 Components of Effective Secondary Programs 379 Adults with Reading Problems 379 Postsecondary and College Programs 379 Needs of Adults with Reading Problems 380 Instructional Programs for Adults 380 Summary 381 References 382 15 Literacy Instruction for Students with Special Needs 384 Introduction 385 Students with Disabilities 385 The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 385 The Individualized Education Program 387 Transition Services 388 Procedural Safeguards 388 Learning Disabilities 388 Characteristics of Learning Disabilities 388 Educational Settings for Students with Learning Disabilities 389 Eligibility of Learning Disabilities for Special Education 390 Dyslexia 390 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 391 Characteristics of ADHD 391 Educational Settings for Students with ADHD 392 Medication for Students with ADHD 392 Students Who Are at Risk for School Failure 392 Providing Reading Instruction for Students with Special Needs 393 Adapting Standard Reading Methods for Students with Severe Reading Disabilities 393   xiv CONTENTS Differentiated Instruction 396 Differences in Cognitive Processing 396 Multisensory Methods for Teaching Reading 397 Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing Program 399 Direct Instruction Reading Program 400 Fast ForWord 400 Summary 401 References 401 16 Collaborative Assessment and Instruction 404 Introduction 405 Changing Roles of Reading Specialists 405 Title I Programs 405 No Child Left Behind Act 407 Narrowing the Achievement Gap 407 Role of the Reading Specialist in Assessment 408 Evaluation of Student Performance 408 Individual Diagnostic Procedures 408 Role of the Reading Specialist in Instruction 410 Working with Classroom Teachers 411 Working with Other Professionals 411 Reading Specialists as Literacy Leaders 411 Providing Support for Teachers 412 Providing Support for Paraprofessionals 413 Serving as Liaison between Teachers and Administrators 413 Serving on Student Services Teams 415 Serving on the Instructional Intervention Team 417 Working with Parents 419 Literacy Advocates in the Community 421 Summary 423 References 423 Test Index 425 Name Index 000 Subject Index 000