Recent Advances in Micro- and Macroalgal Processing A comprehensive review of algae as novel and sustainable sources of algal ingredients, their extraction and processing This comprehensive text offers an in-depth exploration of the research and issues surrounding the consumption, economics, composition, processing and health effects of algae. With contributions from an international team of experts, the book explores the application of conventional and emerging technologies for algal processing. The book includes recent developments such as drying and milling technologies along with advancements in sustainable greener techniques. The text also highlights individual groups of compounds including polysaccharides, proteins, polyphenols, carotenoids, lipids and fibres from algae. The authors provide insightful reviews of the traditional and more recent applications of algae/algal extracts in food, feed, pharmaceutical and cosmetics products. Offering a holistic view of the various applications, the book looks at the economic feasibility, market trends and considerations, and health hazards associated with algae for industrial applications. This important book: Provides a comprehensive overview of algal biomolecules and the role of emerging processing technologies Explores the potential biological and health benefits of algae and their applications in food, pharmaceuticals and cosmetic products Includes a current review of algal bioactives and processing technologies for food and ingredient manufacturers Contains contributions from leading academic and industrial experts Written for food scientists, allied researchers and professional food technologists, Recent Advances in Micro- and Macroalgal Processing: Food and Health Perspectives offers a guide to the novel processing and extraction techniques for exploring and harnessing the immense potential of algae.

Table of Contents:
Acknowledgments v About the IFST Advances in Food Science Book Series xvii List of Contributors xix Preface xxiii Section I Composition and Extraction Technologies For Algal Bioactives 1 Algae: A Functional Food with a Rich History and Future Superfood 3 Gaurav Rajauria, and Yvonne V. Yuan 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 History of Macro- and Microalgae Consumption 4 1.3 Economic Relevance of Macro- and Microalgae 6 1.4 Book Objectives 7 1.5 Book Structure 7 References 11 2 Influence of Seasonal Variation on Chemical Composition and Nutritional Profiles of Macro- and Microalgae 14 K. Suresh Kumar, Sushma Kumari, Kamleshwar Singh, and Pratibha Kushwaha 2.1 Introduction 14 2.2 Influence of Seasonal Variation on Biochemical Composition of Micro- and Macroalgae 22 2.3 Pigments 24 2.4 Carbohydrates/Polysaccharides 31 2.5 Fiber Content 36 2.6 Proteins 38 2.6.1 Mycosporine-Like Amino Acids (MAAs) 46 2.6.2 Phycobiliproteins and Lectins 47 2.7 Lipids and PUFAs 48 2.8 Inorganic Elements and Minerals 52 2.9 Vitamins 56 2.10 Phenolic Compounds 57 2.11 Other Compounds 59 2.12 Conclusion 59 References 60 3 Advances in Drying and Milling Technologies for Algae 72 K.Y. Show, Y.G. Yan, and Duu-Jong Lee 3.1 Introduction 72 3.2 Algal Cell Drying Technologies 74 3.2.1 Solar Drying 74 3.2.2 Oven Drying 76 3.2.3 Freeze Drying 77 3.2.4 Rotary Drum Drying 77 3.2.5 Incinerator Drying 78 3.2.6 Spray Drying 78 3.2.7 Heat Circulation Drying 79 3.2.8 Microwave Drying 80 3.2.9 Polypropylene Nonwoven Membrane Drying 80 3.2.10 Refractance Window® Drying 81 3.3 Algal Cell Milling Technologies 81 3.3.1 Vortex-Bead Milling 81 3.3.2 Shake-Bead Milling 83 3.3.3 High-Pressure Homogenization 84 3.3.4 High-Speed Homogenization 86 3.3.5 Liquid Nitrogen Grinding 86 3.4 Challenges and Prospects 87 3.4.1 Processing Technology 87 3.4.2 Energy Requirement 87 3.4.3 Product Quality 88 3.4.4 Environmental Impacts 88 3.4.5 Future Directions 89 3.5 Conclusion 89 References 89 4 Recent Advances in the Use of Greener Extraction Technologies for the Recovery of Valuable Bioactive Compounds from Algae 96 Marco Garcia-Vaquero, Torres Sweeney, John O’Doherty, and Gaurav Rajauria 4.1 Introduction 96 4.2 Green Extraction Technologies and Applications 98 4.2.1 Pulsed Electric Field (PEF) 98 4.2.2 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 101 4.2.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 106 4.2.4 Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE) 108 4.2.5 Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) 110 4.3 Combination Techniques 112 4.4 Challenges and Future Perspectives 115 Acknowledgments 116 References 116 5 Extraction Technologies for Functional Lipids 123 Calle Niemi and Francesco G. Gentili 5.1 Introduction 123 5.2 Conventional Extraction Techniques for Functional Lipids 124 5.3 Application of Novel Extraction Technologies for Functional Lipids 127 5.3.1 Algal Cell Disruption Methods 127 5.3.2 Novel Extraction Methods 129 5.4 Future Recommendations 134 Acknowledgments 134 References 135 6 Extraction Technologies for Proteins and Peptides 141 Ariane Tremblay and Lucie Beaulieu 6.1 Introduction 141 6.2 Conventional Extraction Techniques for Proteins and Peptides 144 6.2.1 Cell Disruption Methods 144 6.2.2 Chemical Extraction 147 6.2.3 Enzymatic Processes 148 6.2.4 Recovery/Enrichment Techniques 149 6.2.5 Protein Extraction Methods in Proteomics 150 6.3 Emerging Technologies for Proteins and Peptides 151 6.3.1 Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE) 151 6.3.2 Pulsed Arc Technology 151 6.3.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 153 6.3.4 Sub- and Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 153 6.3.5 High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) and Ultra-high Pressure Extraction (UHP) 154 6.4 Conclusion and Future Outlook 154 References 155 7 Extraction Technologies to Recover Dietary Polyphenols from Macro- and Microalgae 163 M. Shanmugam, Abirami Ramu Ganesan, and Gaurav Rajauria 7.1 Introduction 163 7.2 Conventional Extraction Techniques for Polyphenols 164 7.2.1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE) 165 7.2.2 Solid-Liquid Extraction (SLE) 165 7.3 Innovative Extraction Technologies for Isolation of Polyphenols from Macroalgae 166 7.3.1 Enzyme-Assisted Extraction (EAE) 166 7.3.2 Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE) 169 7.3.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 170 7.3.4 Subcritical Water Extraction (SWE) 171 7.3.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 174 7.3.6 Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) 176 7.4 Factors Affecting Extraction 178 7.4.1 pH 179 7.4.2 Solvents 180 7.5 Challenges and Future Recommendations 180 Acknowledgments 180 References 181 8 Extraction Technologies for Bioactive Polysaccharides 188 Rashida Qari and Rajeev Ravindran 8.1 Introduction 188 8.2 Polysaccharides in Seaweed 189 8.3 Conventional Technologies for Polysaccharide Extraction 192 8.4 Advanced Technologies for Polysaccharide Extraction 200 8.4.1 Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE) 200 8.4.2 Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) 201 8.4.3 Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) 202 8.4.4 Enzyme Assisted Extraction (EAE) 203 8.5 Conclusion 203 References 203 Section II Biological Properties of Algal Derived Compounds 9 Potential Biological Activities Associated with Algal Derived Compounds 211 Yvonne V. Yuan 9.1 Introduction 211 9.2 Antioxidant and Anticarcinogenic Activities of Macro- and Microalgal Constituents 213 9.2.1 Mycosporine-like Amino Acids (MAAs) 214 9.2.2 Scytonemins 218 9.2.3 Pterins 220 9.2.4 Carotenes and Xanthophylls 221 9.3 Antiobesogenic Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents 224 9.4 Antidiabetic Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents 224 9.5 Prebiotic Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents 226 9.6 Immune System Biological Activities of Macroalgal Constituents 227 9.7 Conclusion and Future Work 227 Acknowledgments 227 References 228 10 Algal Polysaccharides and Their Biological Properties 231 Kit-Leong Cheong, Valentina Jesumani, Bilal Muhammad Khan, Yang Liu, and Hong Du 10.1 Introduction 231 10.2 Structure of Marine Algae Polysaccharides 232 10.2.1 Agar 234 10.2.2 Alginates 234 10.2.3 Carrageenan 235 10.2.4 Cellulose 235 10.2.5 Fucoidans 236 10.2.6 Laminarans 237 10.2.7 Mannans 238 10.2.8 Sulfated Rhamnans 239 10.2.9 Ulvans 239 10.2.10 Xylans 239 10.3 Isolation and Purification of Polysaccharides from Algae 240 10.3.1 Isolation 241 10.3.2 Purification 246 10.4 Health-Promoting Activities of MAP 248 10.4.1 Antioxidant Activity 249 10.4.2 Immunomodulatory Activity 253 10.4.3 Anticancer Activity 256 10.4.4 Antiviral Activity 257 10.4.5 Antihyperlipidemic Activity 260 10.4.6 Anticoagulant Activity 261 10.4.7 Antimicrobial Activity 262 10.5 Conclusion and Future Trends 263 References 264 11 Marine Algal Derived Phenolic Compounds and their Biological Activities for Medicinal and Cosmetic Applications 278 Leslie Gager, Fanny Lalegerie, Solène Connan, and Valérie Stiger-Pouvreau 11.1 Introduction 278 11.2 Types and Structures of Phenolic Compounds from Algae 280 11.2.1 Phenolic Compounds from Marine Cyanobacteria and Microalgae 281 11.2.2 Phenolic Compounds from Green and Red Macroalgae 282 11.2.3 Phenolic Compounds from Brown Macroalgae 283 11.2.4 Variability of Phenolic Content in Space and Time 284 11.3 Isolation and Purification of Phenolic Compounds from Algae 285 11.3.1 Importance of the Pretreatment of the Biomass 285 11.3.2 Extraction Procedures 286 11.3.3 Quantification and Analyses of Phenolic Compounds 289 11.4 Biological Properties of Phenolic Compounds in Health, Well-Being, and Cosmetics 290 11.4.1 Antioxidant Properties 290 11.4.2 Antiallergenic and Anti-inflammatory Properties 293 11.4.3 Antidiabetic, Antiobesity Properties and Cardiovascular Protection 296 11.4.4 Antiproliferative and Anticancer Properties 298 11.4.5 Antimicrobial and Antiparasite Properties 299 11.4.6 Antiviral Activities 301 11.4.7 Mineralogenic and Osteogenic Activities 302 11.4.8 Photoprotective Properties 303 11.4.9 Biological Properties Specific to Cosmetics or Cosmeceuticals 304 11.5 Potential Commercial Applications 306 11.5.1 Interest in Health and Nutraceutical Ingredients 306 11.5.2 Interest in Cosmetics and Cosmeceutical Ingredients 307 11.6 Conclusions and Future Trends 308 Acknowledgments 310 References 310 12 Algal Carotenoids: Recovery and their Potential in Disease Prevention 335 V. Sivamurugan, D. Radhika, Abirami Ramu Ganesan, and S. Murugesan 12.1 Introduction 335 12.2 Types and Structure of Carotenoids in Microalgae 337 12.2.1 General Occurrence 337 12.2.2 Carotenoids Isolated from Seaweeds 337 12.3 Isolation and Purification of Carotenoids from Algae 343 12.3.1 Conventional SLE 343 12.3.2 Microwave and Ultrasound Promoted Extraction 344 12.3.3 SCF Extraction 345 12.3.4 Adsorbent Assisted Carotenoid Extraction 346 12.3.5 Ionic Liquid Mediated Carotenoid Extraction 347 12.3.6 Surfactant Assisted Extraction Method 347 12.4 Biological Properties of Carotenoids and Possible Health Effects 349 12.4.1 Cancer Prevention 349 12.4.2 Antioxidant Activities 350 12.4.3 Antidiabetic Activity 351 12.4.4 Skin Diseases 352 12.4.5 Antimicrobial Activities 352 12.4.6 Wound Healing 353 12.4.7 Miscellaneous Biological Activities 353 12.5 Potential Commercial Applications 354 12.5.1 Microalgal Carotenoids in Commercial Applications 355 12.5.2 Commercial Applications of Astaxanthin and Lutein 355 12.5.3 Macroalgal Carotenoids in Commercial Applications 356 12.5.4 Nutraceutical Supplements 357 12.5.5 Commercial Application of Algal Carotenoids in Feed 357 12.6 Conclusions and Future Recommendations 358 Acknowledgments 358 References 358 13 Algal Derived Functional Lipids and their Role in Promoting Health 370 Nolwenn Terme, Benoît Chénais, Mathilde Fournière, Nathalie Bourgougnon, and Gilles Bedoux 13.1 Introduction 370 13.2 Types and Structures of Fatty Acids from Algae 371 13.3 Isolation and Purification of FAs from Algae 378 13.3.1 Isolation of FAs from Algae 378 13.3.2 Purification of FAs from Algae 378 13.4 Health Properties of FAs 384 13.4.1 Lipids, FAs from Seaweeds and Cosmetic or Cosmeceutical Uses 384 13.4.2 Preventive Effects of n-3 PUFAs on CVD and Metabolic Syndrome 387 13.4.3 Contribution of n-3 PUFAs in Cancer Risk Factor Prevention and/or Therapy 390 13.4.4 Antiviral Activities 396 13.5 Potential Commercial Applications 396 13.6 Conclusion and Future Trends 397 Acknowledgments 398 References 398 14 Algal Proteins and Peptides: Current Trends and Future Prospects 418 Abirami Ramu Ganesan, Shanmugam Munisamy, Rajeev Bhat, Palaniappan Seedevi, Kannan Mohan, and Shingo Matsukawa 14.1 Introduction 418 14.2 Isolation and Purification of Proteins from Algae 419 14.3 Structural Characteristics of Micro- and Macroalgae Peptides 421 14.3.1 Structures of Peptides from Microalgae 421 14.3.2 Structure of Protein and Peptides from Macroalgae 423 14.4 Protein and Peptide Extraction Methods from Algae 424 14.4.1 Physical Processes 424 14.4.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis 427 14.4.3 Enzyme Assisted Extraction (EAE) 428 14.4.4 Ultrasound Assisted Extraction 428 14.4.5 Pulsed Electric Field 429 14.4.6 Microwave Assisted Extraction 429 14.4.7 Membrane Filtration 430 14.4.8 High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) 430 14.5 Biological Properties of Micro- and Macroalgal Peptides and Possible Health Effects 431 14.5.1 Antihypertensive Peptides 431 14.5.2 Anticancer Peptides and Proteins 431 14.5.3 Antioxidant Micro- and Macroalgal Peptides 432 14.5.4 Anti-Inflammatory Peptides 432 14.5.5 Algal Proteins and Peptides on Immunomodulation 433 14.5.6 Antiobesity Peptides 434 14.5.7 Antidiabetic Proteins and Peptides 434 14.5.8 Antimicrobial Algal Peptides 435 14.5.9 Biological Value of Algal Proteins in Human Nutrition 435 14.6 Potential Commercial Applications of Micro- and Macroalgal Peptides and Proteins 436 14.6.1 Microalgae Peptides and Proteins in Commercial Applications 436 14.6.2 Macroalgal Peptides and Proteins in Commercial Applications 437 14.7 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 437 Acknowledgments 438 References 438 15 Algal Dietary Fiber and its Health Benefits 446 Shakeel Ramzan, Muhammad Mushtaq, Sumia Akram, and Ahmad Adnan 15.1 Introduction 446 15.2 Dietary Fiber 447 15.2.1 Algae as a Source of Dietary Fiber 449 15.2.2 Marine Algal Polysaccharides 451 15.3 Physical Properties of Dietary Fiber (Dispersibility, Viscosity, Binding Capacity, Fermentability) 452 15.3.1 Dispersibility 452 15.3.2 Viscosity (η) 453 15.3.3 Binding Capacity 454 15.3.4 Fermentability 455 15.4 Therapeutic Effect of Algal Dietary Fibers 456 15.4.1 Antihypertensive Effects 456 15.4.2 Antiobesity Attributes 457 15.4.3 Diabetes Control 457 15.5 Potential Commercial Applications 458 15.6 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 459 References 460 Section III Application of Algae and Algal Components 16 Applications of Algae and Algae Extracts in Human Food and Feed 467 Sara Amiri Samani, Maryam Jafari, Sayed Mohammad Sahafi, and Shahin Roohinejad 16.1 Introduction 467 16.2 Nutritional Composition of Algae 468 16.3 Application of Whole Algae in Food Products 468 16.3.1 Muscle-Based Foods 468 16.3.2 Dairy Products 469 16.3.3 Cereal-Based Food Products 471 16.3.4 Beverages 473 16.4 Application of Whole Algae in Feed 473 16.5 Algal Extracts as Ingredients in Food Products 475 16.5.1 Proteins 475 16.5.2 Polysaccharides 477 16.5.3 Lipids 478 16.5.4 Pigments 479 16.5.5 Phenolic Compounds 480 16.6 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 481 References 481 17 Role of Algal Compounds for Human Health 487 Sidra Ehsan, Sumia Akram, Zohaib Saeed, Muhammad Pervaiz, and Muhammad Mushtaq 17.1 Introduction 487 17.2 Classification of Algae 488 17.2.1 Euglenophyta 488 17.2.2 Chrysophyta 489 17.2.3 Pyrrophyta 489 17.2.4 Chlorophyta (Green Algae) 489 17.2.5 Rhodophyta (Red Algae) 490 17.2.6 Phaeophyta (Brown Algae) 490 17.2.7 Xanthophyta 490 17.3 Proximate Composition of Algae 490 17.3.1 Algal Carbohydrates 490 17.3.2 Proteinaceous Biomolecules in Algae 494 17.3.3 Algal Lipids 496 17.3.4 Algal Minerals 499 17.3.5 Algal Vitamins 500 17.4 Commercial Importance of Macroalgae in Human Nutrition 500 References 502 18 Advancements in Algae in Nutraceutical and Functional Food 506 Froylán M.E. Escalante and Daniel A. Pérez-Rico 18.1 Introduction 506 18.2 Algal Derived Molecules 507 18.2.1 Carbohydrates 507 18.2.2 Lipids 511 18.2.3 Proteins 513 18.2.4 Pigments 517 18.3 Perspectives 524 References 526 19 Role of Algal Derived Compounds in Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics 537 María Lourdes Mourelle, Carmen P. Gómez, and José L. Legido 19.1 Introduction 537 19.2 Algae as a Source of Active Ingredients for Pharmaceutical Products 538 19.2.1 Sulfated Polysaccharides and Other Phycocolloids 539 19.2.2 Phlorotannins and Other Polyphenols 549 19.2.3 Sterols 552 19.2.4 PUFAs and Other Lipidic Compounds 554 19.2.5 Carotenoids and Other Pigments 556 19.2.6 Peptides and Proteins 557 19.2.7 Other Bioactive Compounds 558 19.3 Potential Pharmaceutical Formulations from Algae 559 19.3.1 Potential Anticancer, Cytotoxic, and Antiproliferative Pharmaceutical Formulations 559 19.3.2 Potential Antithrombotic, Anticoagulant, and Antihypertensive Pharmaceutical Formulations 561 19.3.3 Potential Antilipidemic and Anticholesterolemic Pharmaceutical Formulations 562 19.3.4 Potential Antiobesity and Antidiabetic Pharmaceuticals Formulations 562 19.3.5 Potential Antibacterial, Antiviral, and Antifungal Pharmaceutical Formulations 564 19.3.6 Potential Immunomodulatory Anti-Inflammatory Pharmaceutical Formulations 565 19.3.7 Potential Neuroprotective Pharmaceutical Formulations for Healthy Nervous System 565 19.3.8 Other Potential Pharmacological Formulations from Algae 566 19.4 Algae as a Source of Active Ingredients for Cosmeceuticals 567 19.4.1 Polysaccharides 568 19.4.2 Phenols and Polyphenols 575 19.4.3 Terpenes 576 19.4.4 Pigments 576 19.4.5 PUFAs and Other Lipid Compounds 577 19.4.6 Proteins and Amino Acids 577 19.4.7 Other Compounds 578 19.4.8 Algal Extracts 579 19.5 Potential Cosmeceutical Formulations from Algae 580 19.5.1 Moisturizing Cosmeceutical Formulations 581 19.5.2 Antiaging and Photoageing Cosmeceutical Formulations 581 19.5.3 Skin Whitening Cosmeceutical Formulations 582 19.5.4 Other Potential Cosmeceutical Formulations 582 19.6 Conclusion and Future Trends 583 References 584 20 Economic Status of Seaweed: Production, Consumption, Commercial Applications, Hazards, and Legislations 604 Anushree Priyadarshini, Akanksha Priyadarshini, and Gaurav Rajauria 20.1 Introduction 604 20.2 World Seaweed Utilization 605 20.2.1 World Seaweed Production 605 20.2.2 Trends in Seaweed Production and Consumption 605 20.2.3 Economic Relevance of Seaweed 610 20.3 Commercial Usage of Seaweed and Seaweed Functional Components 611 20.3.1 Food Applications of Seaweed 611 20.3.2 Nonfood Applications of Seaweed 612 20.4 Hazards Associated with Seaweed Applications 612 20.5 Legislation 613 20.6 Conclusion 614 References 614 Index 617