This volume encompasses the range of research questions on language-related problems that arise in language teaching, learning and assessment. The [150] chapters are written by experts in the field who each offer their insights into current and future directions of research, and who suggest several highly relevant research questions.   Topics include, but are not limited to: language skills teaching, language skills assessment and testing, measurement, feedback, discourse analysis, pragmatics, semantics, language learning through technology, CALL, MALL, ESP, EAP, ERPP, TBLT, materials development, genre analysis, needs analysis, corpus, content-based language teaching, language teaching and learning strategies, individual differences, research methods,  classroom research, form-focusedinstruction, age effects, literacy, proficiency, and teacher education and teacher development. The book serves as a reference and offers inspiration to researchers and students in language education.  An important skill in reviewing the research literature is following a study’s “plan of attack.” Broadly, this means that before accepting and acting upon the findings, one considers a) the research question (Is it clear and focused? Measurable?), b) the subjects examined, the methods deployed, and the measures chosen (Do they fit the study’s goal and have the potential to yield useful results?), and c) the analysis of the data (Do the data lead to the discussion presented? Has the author reasonably interpreted results to reach the conclusion?). Mohebbi and Coombe’s book, Research Questions in Language Education and Applied Linguistics: A Reference Guide, helps budding researchers take the first step and develop a solid research question. As the field of language education evolves, we need continual research to improve our instructional and assessment practices and our understanding of the learners’ language learning processes. This book with its remarkable 150 topics and 10 times the number of potential research questions provides a wealth of ideas that will help early career researchers conduct studies that move our field forward and grow our knowledge base. Deborah J. Short, Ph.D., Director, Academic Language Research & Training, Past President, TESOL International Association (2021-22) As a teacher in graduate programs in TESOL I frequently come across the frustration of students at centering their research interests on a particular topic and developing research questions which are worth pursuing so as to make a contribution to the field. This frustration stems from the fact that our field is so vast and interrelated, that it is often impossible to properly address all that interests them. Hence, I wholeheartedly welcome this most relevant and innovative addition to the research literature in the field of TESOL and Applied Linguistics. Coombe and Mohebbi have created a real tour de force that stands to inform budding researchers in the field for many years to come. Additionally, the cutting-edge depiction of the field and all it has to offer will no doubt update the research agendas of many seasoned researchers around the world. The 150 chapters are organized in a most powerful, yet, deceptively simple way offering a positioning within the topic, suggesting questions that might direct inquiry and offering a basic set of bibliographic tools to start the reader in the path towards research. What is more, the nine sections in which the chapters are organized leave no area of the field unexplored. Dr. Gabriel Díaz Maggioli, Academic Advisor, Institute of Education, Universidad ORT del Uruguay, President, IATEFL Chapter “Metacognition in Academic Writing: Learning Dimensions” is available open access under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License via link.springer.com.

Table of Contents:
Introduction.- Part I:  Teaching and teaching-related topics.- 1 Attending to Form in the Communicative Classroom; Martin East.- 2 Blended Learning; Lana Hiasat.- 3 Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL); Zohreh R. Eslami and Zihan Geng.- 4 Content-Based Language Teaching; Zubeyde Sinem GENC.- 5 Creativity and Language Teaching; Tamas Kiss.- 6 Discourse Analysis; Brian Paltridge.- 7 English Academic Vocabulary Teaching and Learning; Sophia Skoufaki.- 8 English for Academic Purposes; Helen Basturkmen.- 9 English for Specific Purposes; Helen Basturkmen.- 10 English-Medium Instruction; Keith M. Graham and Zohreh R. Eslami.- 11 Focus on Form in Second Language Instruction; Alessandro Benati.- 12 A Genre-Based Approach to Writing Instruction in the Content Areas; Luciana C. de Oliveira & Sharon L. Smith.- 13 Global Englishes and Teaching English as an International Language; Heath Rose and Mona Syrbe.- 14 Identity in language learning and teaching; Bonny Norton.- 15 Inclusive Language Teaching; David Gerlach.- 16 Increasing Reading Fluency; Neil J Anderson.- 17 Instructional Pragmatics; Zohreh R. Eslami and Shaun Weihong  Ko.- 18 Interactionist Approach to Corrective Feedback; Rebekha Abbuhl.- 19 Issues in Teaching and Assessing Language as Communication; Barbara Hoekje.- 20 Language Teaching in Difficult Circumstances; Jason Anderson, Amol Padwad and  Richard Smith.- 20 Language Teaching in Difficult Circumstances; Jason Anderson, Amol Padwad and  Richard Smith.- 21 Materials in the Language Classroom; Kathleen Graves.- 22 Motivation in Practice; Julie Waddington.- 23 Second Language Writing Instruction; Ken Hyland.- 24 Task-based Language Teaching; Rod Ellis.- 25 Teacher & Learner Perspectives on Vocabulary Learning and Teaching (VLT); Jonathan Newton.- 26 Teachers’ Relational Practices and Students’ Motivation; Alastair Henry.- 27 Teaching English as an International Language; Aya Matsuda.- 28 Teaching for Transfer of Second Language Learning; Mark A. James.- 29 Teaching Speakers of Marginalized Varieties: Creoles and Unstandardized Dialects; Jeff Siegel.- 30 Teaching Suprasegmentals in English as a Lingua Franca Contexts; Christine Lewis and David Deterding.- 31 Translanguaging in Teaching/learning Languages; Leslie Barratt.- 32 Translanguaging with SLIFE Students for More Inclusive Teaching; Eileen Ariza.- 33 World Englishes, English as a Lingua Franca and ELT; Paola Vettorel.- Part II:  Learners and learning-related topics.- 34 Child Task-based Language Learning in Foreign Language Contexts; María del Pilar García Mayo.- 35 Emergent Bilingualism in Foreign Language Education; Pat Moore and Blake Turnbull.- 36 Extramural English in Language Education; Pia Sundqvist.- 37 Language Learning Strategies; Mirosław Pawlak.- 38 Language Proficiency and Academic Performance; Saleh Al-Busaidi.- 39 Learner Strategies; Li-Shih Huang.- 40 Learning Beyond the Classroom; Hayo Reinders and Phil Benson.- 41 Long-term English Learners; Maneka Deanna Brooks and Peter Smagorinsky.- 42 Materials Development for Language Learning; Brian Tomlinson.- 43 Metacognition in Academic Writing: Learning Dimensions; Raffaella Negretti.- 44 Second-language Strategy Instruction; Luke Plonsky and Ekaterina Sudina.- 45 Second Language Linguistic Competence and Literacy of Adult Migrants with Little or No Home Language Literacy; Martha Young-Scholten.- 46 Task Engagement in Language Learning; Joy Egbert.- 47 Vocabulary Knowledge and Educational Attainment; James Milton.- 48 Vocabulary Learning Strategies; Peter Yongqi Gu.- 49 Working Memory; Zhisheng (Edward) Wen.- Part III:  Assessment and assessment-related topics.- 50 Aligning Language Assessments to Standards and Frameworks; Spiros Papageorgiou.- 51 Assessing L2 Signed Language Ability in Deaf Children of Hearing Parents; Wolfgang Mann, Joanna Hoskin and Hilary Dumbrill.- 52 Assessing Second Language Listening; Elvis Wagner.- 53 Assessing Second Language Pronunciation; Johnathan Jones and Talia Isaacs.- 54 (The) Assessment of Target-Language Pragmatics; Andrew D. Cohen.- 55 Classroom Assessment & Assessment as Learning; Jonathan Trace.- 56 English Language Proficiency: What is it? And where do learners fit into it? James Dean Brown.- 57        Integrated Skills Assessment; Lia Plakans.- 58 Language Assessment in EMI; Slobodanka Dimova.- 59 Language Assessment for Professional Purposes; Ute Knoch.- 60 Language Assessment Literacy; Christine Coombe and Peter Davidson.- 61    Language Testing; Glenn Fulcher.- 62 Needs Analysis; Li-Shih Huang.- 62B Oral Corrective Feedback; Shaofeng Li.- 63 Peer Interaction Assessment; Noriko Iwashita.- 64 Portfolio Assessment; Pauline Mak.- 65 (The) Provision of Feedback on EAP Writing; Rachael Ruegg.- 66 (The) Role of the Rater in Writing Assessment; Sara T. Cushing.- 67 Second Language Vocabulary Assessment;John Read.- 68 Self-assessment; Yuko Goto Butler.- 69 Strategic Competence: The Concept and Its Role in Language Assessment; Mehdi Riazi.- 70 Translation Assessment; Renee Jourdenais.- 71 Validation of Assessment Scores and Uses; Mehdi Riazi.- 72 Vocabulary: Its Development over Time and Writing Quality in L2 Contexts; Lee McCallum.- 73 Washback; Rubina Khan.- 74 Written Corrective Feedback; Icy Lee.- 75 Writing Assessment Literacy; Deborah Crusan.- Part IV:  Language skills and subskills.- 76 Aural Vocabulary Knowledge; Joshua Matthews.- 77 Collaborative Writing in the Second/Foreign Language (L2) Classroom; Ali Shehadeh.- 78 Developing L2 Listening Fluency; Anna C-S Chang.- 79 Extensive Reading; Willy A Renandya and Yuseva Iswandari.- 80            Foreign Accent Strength in English; Berna Hendriks and Frank van Meurs.- 81 Foreign Language Reading Fluency and Reading Fluency Methodologies; Greta Gorsuch and Etsuo Taguchi.-82 Learner Corpora for Disciplinary Writing; Lynne Flowerdew.- 83 Lexical Inferencing and Vocabulary Development; Hossein Vafadar and Hassan Mohebbi.- 84 Oral Academic Genres and Features of Student Academic Presentations; Alla Zareva.- 85 Speech Fluency; Xun Yan, Yuyun Lei, and Hyunji (Hayley) Park.- 86 Teaching and Learning Vocabulary; Suhad Sonbul and Anna Siyanova-Chanturia.- Part V:  Teachers and teacher education.- 87 Corpora in the Classroom.- Eric Friginal and Justin Taylor; 88 EAP Teacher Education; Mahmood Reza Atai.- 89 Emotionality in TESOL and Teacher Education; Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo.- 90 English Language Teacher Motivation; Krishna K Dixit and Amol Padwad.- 91 Foreign Language Teacher Education; Friederike Klippel.- 92 Identity in SLA and Second Language Teacher Education; Peter De Costa and Curtis Green-Eneix.- 93 Language Teacher Burnout; Akram Nayernia.- 94 Language Teacher Identity; Gary Barkhuizen.- 95 Language Teacher Professional Development;Victoria Tuzlukova.- 96 Language Teacher Professionalism; Britta Viebrock and Carina Kaufmann.- 97 Language Teacher Well-being; Kyle R. Talbot and Sarah Mercer.- 98 Language Teachers’ Self-efficacy Beliefs; Mark Wyatt.- 99 Online Language Teacher Education (OLTE); Mary Ann Christison and Denise E. Murray.- 100 Reflective Practice in Language Education; Thomas S.C. Farrell.- 101 Second Language Teacher Education Curricula; Nikki Ashcraft.- 102 Teacher Knowledge Development; Phil Quirke.- 103 Teacher Research; Anne Burns.- 104 The Native/nonnative Conundrum; Péter Medgyes.- Part VI:  Technology and technology-enhanced instruction.- 105 Computer-based Second Language Listening; Mónica S. Cárdenas-Claros.- 106 Digital Game-Based Learning; Zohreh R. Eslami and Mahjabin Chowdhury.- 107 Digital Genres and Teaching English for Academic Purposes; María José Luzón.- 108 Digital Literacies; Nicky Hockly.- 109 Exploring the Potential of Social Media in SLA: Issues, Affordances and Incentives; Liam Murray and Marta Giralt.- 110 Genre-based Automated Writing Evaluation; Elena Cotos.- 111 Impact of Perception on Readiness for Online Teaching; Jacqueline S. Stephen .- 112 Intelligent Computer Assisted Language Learning; Trude Heift.- 113 Online Continuing Professional Development; Flora Debora Floris.- 114 Online Informal Language Learning; Ruth Trinder.- 115 Social Networking for Language Teaching and Learning; Phuong Tran.- Part VII:  Politics, policies and practices in language education.- 116 Bilingualism; Gillian Wigglesworth and Carmel O’Shannessy.- 117 ELT and International Development; C. J. Denman.- 118 ELT Textbook  Ideology; Esmat Babaii.- 119 Embedding Academic Literacy in Degree Curricula; Neil Murray.- 120 English Language Education Policy; Robert Kirkpatrick and M. Obaidul Hamid.-  121 Englishization of Higher Education; Nicola Galloway and Jim McKinley.- 122 Linguistic Barriers in Foreign Language Education; Heiko Motschenbacher.- 123Policy Enactment for Effective Leadership in English Language Program Management; Kashif Raza.- 124 Unequal Englishes; Ruanni Tupas.- 125 Values in the Language Classroom; Graham Hall.- Part VIII:  Research and research-related topics.- 126 Eye-tracking as a Research Method in Language Testing; Tineke Brunfaut.- 127 History of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics; Richard Smith.- 128 Quantitative Research Methods and the Reform Movement in Applied Linguistics; Luke Plonsky.- 129 Research Methods in Unconscious Motivation; Ali H. Al-Hoorie.- 130 Research Paradigms in TESOL and Language Education; Salah Troudi.- 131 Teacher Research; Daniel Xerri.- Part IX:  Applied linguistics and second language acquisition.- 132 Bilingual Code-mixing and Code-switching; Tej K. Bhatia.- 133 Cognitive Task Complexity and Second Language Writing; Mark D. Johnson.- 134 Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency (CAF); Alex Housen.- 135 (A) Complex Dynamic Systems Perspective to Researching Language Classroom Dynamics; Diane Larsen-Freeman.- 136 Complex Dynamic Systems Theory and Second Language Development; Marjolijn Verspoor and Wander Lowie.- 137 Corpora in Applied Linguistics; Sandra C. Deshors.- 138 Corpus-Based Genre Analysis; Xiaofei Lu, J. Elliott Casal & Yingying Liu.- 139 Embodied Interaction in Second Language Teaching/learning; Elena Shvidko and Dwight Atkinson.- 140 Implicit and Explicit Learning and Knowledge; Aline Godfroid.- 141 Incidental and Intentional Learning of Multi-word Expressions; Elvenna Majuddin and Anna Siyanova-Chanturia.- 142 Language Processing in the Foreign Language Classroom (From a Cognitive Perspective); Ronald P. Leow.- 143 Multiple Intelligences Theory; Mavadat Saidi and Mohadese Khosravi.- 144 Peer Interaction in the Classroom; Masatoshi Sato.- 145 Plurilingualism in TESOL; Shelley K. Taylor.- 146 Pragmatics in Language Teaching and Learning; Minh Thi Thuy Nguyen.- 147 Second Language Learning Motivatio; Kata Csizér.- 148           Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Development; Matthew E. Poehner and James P. Lantolf.- 149 Sociolinguistic Competence in Second Languages; Kimberly L. Geeslin.- 150 Translanguaging for Australian Aboriginal Speakers; Rhonda Oliver Stephen .- 112 Intelligent Computer Assisted Language Learning; Trude Heift.- 113 Online Continuing Professional Development; Flora Debora Floris.- 114 Online Informal Language Learning; Ruth Trinder.- 115 Social Networking for Language Teaching and Learning; Phuong Tran.- Part VII:  Politics, policies and practices in language education.- 116 Bilingualism; Gillian Wigglesworth and Carmel O’Shannessy.- 117 ELT and International Development; C. J. Denman.- 118 ELT Textbook  Ideology; Esmat Babaii.- 119 Embedding Academic Literacy in Degree Curricula; Neil Murray.- 120 English Language Education Policy; Robert Kirkpatrick and M. Obaidul Hamid.-  121 Englishization of Higher Education; Nicola Galloway and Jim McKinley.- 122 Linguistic Barriers in Foreign Language Education; Heiko Motschenbacher.- 123 Policy Enactment for Effective Leadership in English Language Program Management; Kashif Raza.- 124 Unequal Englishes; Ruanni Tupas.- 125 Values in the Language Classroom; Graham Hall.- Part VIII:  Research and research-related topics.- 126 Eye-tracking as a Research Method in Language Testing; Tineke Brunfaut.- 127 History of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics; Richard Smith.- 128 Quantitative Research Methods and the Reform Movement in Applied Linguistics; Luke Plonsky.- 129 Research Methods in Unconscious Motivation; Ali H. Al-Hoorie.- 130 Research Paradigms in TESOL and Language Education; Salah Troudi.- 131 Teacher Research; Daniel Xerri.- Part IX:  Applied linguistics and second language acquisition.- 132 Bilingual Code-mixing and Code-switching; Tej K. Bhatia.- 133 Cognitive Task Complexity and Second Language Writing; Mark D. Johnson.- 134 Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency (CAF); Alex Housen.- 135 (A) Complex Dynamic Systems Perspective to Researching Language Classroom Dynamics; Diane Larsen-Freeman.- 136 Complex Dynamic Systems Theory and Second Language Development; Marjolijn Verspoor and Wander Lowie.- 137 Corpora in Applied Linguistics; Sandra C. Deshors.- 138 Corpus-Based Genre Analysis; Xiaofei Lu, J. Elliott Casal & Yingying Liu.- 139 Embodied Interaction in Second Language Teaching/learning; Elena Shvidko and Dwight Atkinson.- 140 Implicit and Explicit Learning and Knowledge; Aline Godfroid.- 141 Incidental and Intentional Learning of Multi-word Expressions; Elvenna Majuddin and Anna Siyanova-Chanturia.- 142 Language Processing in the Foreign Language Classroom (From a Cognitive Perspective); Ronald P. Leow.- 143 Multiple Intelligences Theory; Mavadat Saidi and Mohadese Khosravi.- 144 Peer Interaction in the Classroom; Masatoshi Sato.- 145 Plurilingualism in TESOL; Shelley K. Taylor.- 146 Pragmatics in Language Teachingand Learning; Minh Thi Thuy Nguyen.- 147 Second Language Learning Motivatio; Kata Csizér.- 148 Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Development; Matthew E. Poehner and James P. Lantolf.- 149 Sociolinguistic Competence in Second Languages; Kimberly L. Geeslin.- 150 Translanguaging for Australian Aboriginal Speakers; Rhonda Oliver.