Comprehensive guide to understanding and mitigating the issue of microplastics in textiles, written from the perspective of the manufacturer
Textile Microplastics in the Environment: Sources, Impacts, and Solutions presents essential information pertaining to microplastics or microfibers derived from textile sources as well as mitigation and reduction strategies that benefit both the public and researchers.
Readers will find information on:
- Origins of textile microplastics, explored from the perspectives of manufacturers
- Sources, characterization methods, and regulatory aspects of textile microplastics
- Integration of machine learning and machine vision techniques for the purposes of quantifying and reducing microplastic pollution
- Environmental and health concerns of microplastic, such as threatening the metabolic activities of aquatic animals
- A practical framework that establishes a foundation to solve an essential worldwide pollution issue
This title is an essential reference for researchers in the fields of materials, textiles, and the environment who are studying the impacts and origins of fibrous microplastics. The book is also invaluable to industry professionals, enabling them to modify their process sequences and reduce their pollution footprint.
Table of Contents:
Preface xi
1 Microplastics: General Prospectives 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Issues of Microplastics 4
1.1.2 Definition of Microplastics and Nanoplastics 6
1.2 Textiles and Microfibers, Classification 8
1.2.1 Synthetic Textiles and Emission of Microfibers 9
1.2.2 Microfibers Released from Man-Made or Regenerated Fibers 11
1.2.3 Microfibers or Fibrous Fragments from Natural Fibers 11
1.3 Microplastics in Air Stream – Case Studies with Some Cities 12
1.3.1 Indoor Air 12
1.4 Conclusion 14
References 15
2 Sources of Microplastics: Textile and Technical Textiles 19
2.1 Introduction 19
2.1.1 Yarns 22
2.2 Textile Characteristics as a Source 22
2.2.1 Yarn Structure and Microplastic Emission 23
2.2.1.1 Spinning Methods and Fiber Orientation 23
2.2.1.2 Yarn Twist and Strength 24
2.2.1.3 Yarn Count and Fineness 27
2.2.1.4 Yarn Types and Microplastic Emission 29
2.2.1.5 Yarn Count and Fineness 29
2.2.2 Fabric Structure Versus Fibrous Fragments 30
2.2.3 Coloration and Garmenting as a Source 33
2.3 Technical Textiles as a Source of Microplastics 34
2.3.1 Plastic Mulch Can Be a Major Source of Microplastics in Agricultural Soils and the Environment 37
2.3.2 Mattress 37
2.4 Aging of Textiles Versus Microplastics 38
2.5 Conclusion 40
References 41
3 Domestic Washing and Drying as the Source of Microplastics from the Textile and Garments 47
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Factors Influencing the Generation of Microplastics During Domestic Washing 47
3.2.1 Influence of Detergent and Softener 48
3.2.2 Fabric Softeners 50
3.2.3 Influence of Temperature 51
3.2.4 Influence of Washing Duration 53
3.2.5 Influence of Drying on Microfiber Releases 54
3.2.6 Overloading or Underloading 55
3.2.7 Type of Washing Machines 56
3.2.8 Effect of Textile Properties 57
3.3 Conclusion 58
References 59
4 Microplastics Pollution: Health Hazards 63
4.1 Introduction 63
4.1.1 Possible Routes for Human Exposure 64
4.1.1.1 Ingestion 65
4.1.1.2 Inhalation 66
4.1.1.3 Dermal Contact 67
4.2 Textile Functionalization as Source of Microfibers Toxicity 67
4.2.1 Fiber Production 67
4.3 Microplastic Contamination in Human Health 74
4.3.1 Inflammatory and Immune Responses 75
4.3.2 Gastrointestinal and Metabolic Disruptions 77
4.3.3 Respiratory System 77
4.3.4 Cardiovascular System 78
4.3.5 Nervous System 78
4.3.6 Reproductive System 79
4.3.7 Immune System 79
4.3.8 Microplastic-Induced Cancer 80
4.3.9 Toxicity Mechanisms 81
4.4 Conclusion 84
References 85
5 Characterization and Quantification of Microplastics 93
5.1 Introduction 93
5.2 Fibrous Microplastics 94
5.3 Microplastics Collection 100
5.3.1 Water Sampling 101
5.3.2 Sediment Sampling 103
5.3.3 Biological Sampling 103
5.3.4 Sampling Methods 104
5.4 Samples Pretreatment 104
5.5 Extraction of Microplastics 105
5.6 Separation of Microplastics 106
5.7 Characterization of Microplastics 108
5.7.1 Morphological Characterization 109
5.7.1.1 Chemical Characterization 113
5.7.1.2 Spectroscopic Methods 113
5.7.2 Infrared Spectroscopy 118
5.7.3 Raman Spectroscopy 121
5.7.3.1 Thermal Methods 125
5.7.3.2 Chemical Methods 129
5.8 Conclusion 129
References 130
6 Role of Machine Learning and Machine Vision on Microplastics 141
6.1 Introduction 141
6.2 Machine Learning for Microplastics 143
6.2.1 Unsupervised Machine Learning Techniques 145
6.2.1.1 k-Means Clustering 145
6.2.1.2 Hierarchical Cluster Analysis 145
6.2.1.3 Hierarchical Density-Based Spatial Clustering 147
6.2.1.4 Principal Component Analysis 147
6.2.1.5 Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection 148
6.2.2 Supervised Machine Learning Techniques 148
6.2.2.1 Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogies 149
6.2.2.2 k-Nearest Neighbors 149
6.2.2.3 Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis 150
6.2.2.4 Support Vector Machine 150
6.2.2.5 Decision Trees and Random Decision Forests (RDF) 151
6.2.2.6 Artificial Neural Networks 152
6.2.2.7 Deep Learning 154
6.2.2.8 Image and AI or ml 155
6.3 Challenges 155
6.3.1 Cameras and Their Sensibility 155
6.3.2 Influence of Textile Functionalization on Image Capturing and Processing 156
6.3.3 Reference Libraries and Matching Software 157
6.3.4 Data Sharing and Storage with the Supply Chain 159
6.4 Conclusion and Future Scope 159
6.4.1 Future Scope 160
References 162
7 Positive Actions Toward Reductions in Microplastics: Part I 169
7.1 Introduction 169
7.2 Safe and Sustainable by Design Approach 170
7.2.1 Use of Bio-Based Fibers 170
7.2.2 Eco-friendly Manufacturing Processes 173
7.2.2.1 Use of Natural Dyes 173
7.2.2.2 Use of Bio-Based Finishing Additives 174
7.2.2.3 End of Life, Recycling, and Disposal Phase 175
7.2.2.4 Consumer Awareness 176
7.2.2.5 Domestic Washing Phase 177
7.2.2.6 Textile Finishing 180
7.2.2.7 Mechanical Finishing 180
7.2.2.8 Chemical Finishing 181
7.2.2.9 Enzymatic Treatment 181
7.2.2.10 Finishing with Resins 182
7.2.3 Pectin as Finishing Agent 183
7.2.3.1 Finishing with Biodegradable Polymers 184
7.2.4 Finishing with Chitosan 185
7.3 Conclusion 186
References 186
8 Positive Actions Toward Reductions in Microplastics: Part II 191
8.1 Introduction 191
8.2 Sustainable Consumption and Green Purchasing 192
8.2.1 Selecting Sustainable Materials 193
8.3 Use of Metaverse and Hyperpersonalization 196
8.4 EoL, Disposal Phase 198
8.5 Different Business Models and Their Impacts 200
8.6 Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) 203
8.7 Digital Fashion and 3D Modeling to Reduce Production Waste and Microplastic Generation 203
8.8 Conclusion 208
8.8.1 Obstacles and Future Outlook 209
References 210
9 Standardization and Regulation for the Microplastic Reduction 213
9.1 Introduction 213
9.2 Global Standards for Microplastics and Their Quantifications 214
9.2.1 Standardization for the Quantification 219
9.3 Policies Toward the Reduction of Microplastics 220
9.3.1 EU Regulations 220
9.3.2 EU Microplastics Proposal 223
9.3.3 EU Green Deal 224
9.3.4 United States of America 226
9.3.5 Australia 226
9.3.6 South Korea 227
9.4 Conclusion 228
References 229
10 Elimination of Microplastics from Marine Environments 233
10.1 Introduction 233
10.2 Physical Method 234
10.2.1 Adsorption of Microplastics in Marine Environments 235
10.2.2 Filtration 239
10.2.3 Froth Flotation Method 241
10.3 Chemical Method 242
10.3.1 Coagulation and Flocculation 242
10.3.2 Electrocoagulation 244
10.3.3 Electrochemical Oxidation 245
10.3.4 Ozonation 245
10.3.5 Sol–Gel Technique 246
10.3.6 Photocatalytic Degradation 247
10.4 Biology Method 248
10.4.1 Fungal-Based Degradation of Microplastic 248
10.4.2 Bacterial-Based Degradation of Microplastic 249
10.4.3 Biodegradation with the Assistance of Enzymes 250
10.4.4 Biodegradation of Microplastics: Impact of Different Factors 254
10.5 Conclusion 256
References 256
11 Textile Recycling and Microplastics 263
11.1 Introduction 263
11.2 Recycling of Textiles 264
11.2.1 Fiber Mechanical Recycling of Textiles: Challenges and Opportunities 265
11.2.2 Thermo-Mechanical Recycling 267
11.2.3 Chemical Recycling of Textiles 269
11.2.4 Challenges in Textile Recycling 271
11.3 Conclusion 274
References 274
12 Wastewater Treatment Methods for Removal of Microplastics from Effluents 279
12.1 Introduction 279
12.2 Microplastics and Nanoplastics Characterization for Waste Treatment 280
12.2.1 Use of Membranes 283
12.2.2 Clarification 292
12.2.3 Filtration 293
12.2.4 Reverse Osmosis 297
12.2.5 Filtration Using Nanofiber Filters 298
12.2.6 Electrodialysis 298
12.2.7 Membrane Fouling 300
12.2.8 Membrane Filtration Models 303
12.3 Conclusion 304
References 304
Index 313
