Transportation Decision Making A GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE DECISION MAKING WRITTEN JUST FOR TRANSPORTATION PROFESSIONALS This pioneering text provides a holistic approach to decision making in transportation project development and programming, which can help transportation professionals to optimize their investment choices. The authors present a proven set of methodologies for evaluating transportation projects that ensures that all costs and impacts are taken into consideration. The text’s logical organization gets readers started with a solid foundation in basic principles and then progressively builds on that foundation. Topics covered include: Developing performance measures for evaluation, estimating travel demand, and costing transportation projects Performing an economic efficiency evaluation that accounts for such factors as travel time, safety, and vehicle operating costs Evaluating a project’s impact on economic development and land use as well as its impact on society and culture Assessing a project’s environmental impact, including air quality, noise, ecology, water resources, and aesthetics Evaluating alternative projects on the basis of multiple performance criteria Programming transportation investments so that resources can be optimally allocated to meet facility-specific and system-wide goals Each chapter begins with basic definitions and concepts followed by a methodology for impact assessment. Relevant legislation is discussed and available software for performing evaluations is presented. At the end of each chapter, readers are provided resources for detailed investigation of particular topics. These include Internet sites and publications of international and domestic agencies and research institutions. The authors also provide a companion Web site that offers updates, data for analysis, and case histories of project evaluation and decision making. Given that billions of dollars are spent each year on transportation systems in the United States alone, and that there is a need for thorough and rational evaluation and decision making for cost-effective system preservation and improvement, this text should be on the desks of all transportation planners, engineers, and educators. With exercises in every chapter, this text is an ideal coursebook for the subject of transportation systems analysis and evaluation.

Table of Contents:
Preface Chapter 1 Introductory Concepts in Transportation Decision Making 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Overall Transportation Program Development 1 1.1.1 Network-Level Planning 1 1.1.2 Project Development 2 1.1.3 Programming 2 1.1.4 Budgeting 2 1.1.5 Financial Planning 2 1.2 The Process of Transportation Project Development 2 1.2.1 PDP Steps 3 1.2.2 Federal Legislation That Affects Transportation Decision Making 5 1.3 Impacts of Transportation System Stimuli 6 1.3.1 Types of Transportation Stimuli 6 1.3.2 Impact Categories and Types 7 1.3.3 Dimensions of the Evaluation 9 1.4 Other Ways of Categorizing Transportation System Impacts 11 1.5 Role of Evaluation in PDP and Basic Elements of Evaluation 12 1.5.1 Role of Evaluation in PDP 12 1.5.2 Reasons for Evaluation 12 1.5.3 Measures of a Project’s Worth 12 1.6 Procedure for Transportation System Evaluation 13 1.6.1 Good Practices in Evaluation 18 Summary 18 Exercises 19 References 19 Chapter 2 Performance Measures in Transportation Evaluation 21 Introduction 21 2.1 Transportation System Goals, Objectives, and Performance Measures 21 2.2 Performance Measures at the Network and Project Levels 22 2.3 Properties of a Good Performance Measure 24 2.4 Dimensions of Performance Measures 25 2.5 Performance Measures Associated with Each Dimension 25 2.5.1 Overall Goals 25 2.5.2 System Objectives 26 2.5.3 Sector Concerns and Interests 29 2.5.4 Flow Entity (Passenger and Freight) 29 2.5.5 Type of Transportation Mode 29 2.5.6 Number of Transportation Modes Involved 30 2.5.7 Entity or Stakeholder Affected 32 2.5.8 Spatial Scope 33 2.5.9 Level of Agency Responsibility 33 2.5.10 Time Frame and Level of Refinement 33 2.6 Linking Agency Goals to Performance Measures: State of Practice 33 2.7 Benefits of Using Performance Measures 33 Summary 34 Exercises 34 References 35 Chapter 3 Estimating Transportation Demand 37 Introduction 37 3.1 Transportation Demand 37 3.1.1 Basic Concepts in Transportation Demand Estimation 37 3.1.2 Causes of Shifts in the Transportation Demand Curve 39 3.1.3 Categorization of Demand Estimation Models 39 3.1.4 Aggregate Methods for Project-Level Transportation Demand Estimation 39 3.2 Transportation Supply 48 3.2.1 Concept of Transportation Supply 48 3.2.2 Causes of Shifts in the Transportation Supply Curve 49 3.3 Equilibration and Dynamics of Transportation Demand and Supply 49 3.3.1 Demand–Supply Equilibration 49 3.3.2 Simultaneous Equation Bias in Demand–Supply Equilibration 49 3.3.3 Dynamics of Transportation Demand and Supply 50 3.4 Elasticities of Travel Demand 50 3.4.1 Classification of Elasticities by the Method of Computation 51 3.4.2 Classification of Elasticities by the Attribute Type 52 3.4.3 Classification of Elasticities by the Relative Direction of Response: Direct and Cross-Elasticities 52 3.4.4 Examples of Elasticity Values Used in Practice 53 3.4.5 Application of the Elasticity Concept: Demand Estimation 56 3.4.6 Consumer Surplus and Latent Demand 57 3.5 Emerging Issues in Transportation Demand Estimation 58 Summary 59 Exercises 59 References 61 Additional Resources 63 Chapter 4 Transportation Costs 65 Introduction 65 4.1 Classification of Transportation Costs 65 4.1.1 Classification by the Incurring Party 65 4.1.2 Classification by the Nature of Cost Variation with Output 65 4.1.3 Classification by the Expression of Unit Cost 66 4.1.4 Classification by Position in the Facility Life Cycle 69 4.1.5 Other Classifications of Transportation Costs 69 4.2 Transportation Agency Costs 69 4.2.1 Agency Costs over the Facility Life Cycle 70 4.2.2 Techniques for Estimating Agency Costs 70 4.2.3 Risk as an Element of Agency Cost 72 4.3 Transportation User Costs 72 4.3.1 User Cost Categories 72 4.3.2 Impacts of Demand Elasticity, Induced Demand, and Other Exogenous Changes on User Costs 73 4.4 General Structure and Behavior of Cost Functions 74 4.4.1 Components of a Transportation Cost Function 74 4.4.2 Economies and Diseconomies of Scale 75 4.5 Historical Cost Values and Models for Highway Transportation Systems 76 4.5.1 Highway Agency Cost Models 76 4.5.2 Transit Cost Values and Models 76 4.5.3 Relationships between Transit Operating Costs, System Size, Labor Requirements, and Technology 89 4.5.4 Air Transportation Costs 89 4.6 Issues in Transportation Cost Estimation 90 4.6.1 Aggregated Estimates for Planning vs. Detailed Engineering Estimates for Projects 90 4.6.2 Adjustments for Temporal and Spatial Variations (How to Update Costs) 90 4.6.3 Adjustments for Economies of Scale 91 4.6.4 Problem of Cost Overruns 92 4.6.5 Relative Weight of Agency and User Cost Unit Values 93 Summary 93 Exercises 94 References 94 Chapter 5 Travel-time Impacts 97 Introduction 97 5.1 Categorization of Travel Time 97 5.1.1 Trip Phase 97 5.1.2 Other Bases for Travel-Time Categorization 98 5.2 Procedure for Assessing Travel-Time Impacts 98 5.3 Issues Relating to Travel-Time Value Estimation 104 5.3.1 Conceptual Basis of Time Valuation 104 5.3.2 Factors Affecting the Travel-Time Value 104 5.3.3 Methods for Valuation of Travel Time 107 5.4 Concluding Remarks 115 Summary 115 Exercises 116 References 117 Additional Resources 118 Appendix A5.1: Estimation of Roadway Capacity Using the HCM Method (TRB, 2000) 118 Appendix A5.2: Estimation of Roadway Operating Speeds Using the HCM Method (TRB, 2000) 120 Appendix A5.3: Travel Times Used in World Bank Projects 123 Chapter 6 Evaluation of Safety Impacts 127 Introduction 127 6.1 Basic Definitions and Factors of Transportation Safety 128 6.1.1 Definition of a Crash 128 6.1.2 Transportation Crashes Classified by Severity 128 6.1.3 Categories of Factors Affecting Transportation Crashes 128 6.2 Procedure for Safety Impact Evaluation 131 6.3 Methods for Estimating Crash Reduction Factors 141 6.3.1 Before-and-After Studies 141 6.3.2 Cross-Sectional Studies 142 6.3.3 Comparison of the Before-and-After and Cross-Sectional Methods 143 6.3.4 Elasticity of Crash Frequency 143 6.4 Safety-Related Legislation 144 6.5 Software Packages for Safety Impact Evaluation of Transportation Investments 144 6.5.1 Interactive Highway Safety Design Model 144 6.5.2 Indiana’s Safety Management System 144 6.6 Considerations in Safety Impact Evaluation 144 Summary 145 Exercises 146 References 147 Additional Resources 148 Appendix A6: Crash Reduction and Accident Modification Factors 149 Chapter 7 Vehicle Operating Cost Impacts 157 Introduction 157 7.1 Components of Vehicle Operating Cost 157 7.1.1 Fuel 157 7.1.2 Shipping Inventory 157 7.1.3 Lubricating Oils for Mechanical Working of the Drivetrain 158 7.1.4 Preservation of the Vehicle–Guideway Contact Surface 158 7.1.5 Vehicle Repair and Maintenance 158 7.1.6 Depreciation 158 7.1.7 VOC Data Sources and Average National VOC Rates 158 7.2 Factors that Affect Vehicle Operating Cost 159 7.2.1 Vehicle Type 159 7.2.2 Fuel Type 160 7.2.3 Longitudinal Grade 161 7.2.4 Vehicle Speed 161 7.2.5 Delay 164 7.2.6 Speed Changes 166 7.2.7 Horizontal Curvature 166 7.2.8 Road Surface Condition 167 7.2.9 Other VOC Factors 169 7.3 Procedure for Assessing VOC Impacts 169 7.3.1 Steps for Assessing the Impacts 169 7.3.2 Implementation of Steps 4 to 6 Using the HERS Method 172 7.4 Special Case of VOC Estimation: Work Zones 176 7.5 Selected Software Packages that Include A VOC Estimation Component 176 7.5.1 AASHTO Method 176 7.5.2 HERS Package: National and State Versions 176 7.5.3 HDM-4 Road User Effects 176 7.5.4 Surface Transportation Efficiency Analysis Model 177 7.5.5 Other Models That Include a VOC Estimation Component 177 7.6 Comparison of VOC Estimation Methods and Software 177 7.6.1 Levels of Detail 177 7.6.2 Data Sources 177 Summary 178 Exercises 178 References 179 Additional Resources 180 Appendix A7.1: FHWA (2002) HERS Models for VOC Computation 180 Appendix A7.2: VOC Component Unit Costs 194 Appendix A7.3: Pavement Condition Adjustment Factors 194 Chapter 8 Economic Efficiency Impacts 197 Introduction 197 8.1 Interest Equations and Equivalencies 197 8.1.1 Cash Flow Illustrations 197 8.1.2 The Concept of Interest 197 8.1.3 Types of Compounding and Interest Rates 198 8.1.4 Interest Equations and Key Variables 199 8.1.5 Special Cases of Interest Equations 202 8.2 Criteria for Economic Efficiency Impact Evaluation 204 8.2.1 Present Worth of Costs 204 8.2.2 Equivalent Uniform Annual Cost 204 8.2.3 Equivalent Uniform Annual Return 204 8.2.4 Net Present Value 205 8.2.5 Internal Rate of Return 205 8.2.6 Benefit–Cost Ratio 205 8.2.7 Evaluation Methods Using Incremental Attributes 206 8.2.8 General Discussion of Economic Efficiency Criteria 207 8.3 Procedure for Economic Efficiency Analysis 207 8.4 Software Packages for Economic Efficiency Analysis 209 8.4.1 Surface Transportation Efficiency Analysis Model 209 8.4.2 MicroBenCost Model 209 8.4.3 Highway Development and Management Standards Model 210 8.4.4 Highway Economic Requirements system 210 8.4.5 California DOT’S Cal-B/C System 210 8.5 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis 210 8.6 Case Study: Economic Efficiency Impact Evaluation 210 8.7 Final Comments on Economic Efficiency Analysis 212 Summary 213 Exercises 213 References 215 Additional Resources 216 Appendix A8 216 Chapter 9 Economic Development Impacts 229 Introduction 229 9.1 Economic Development Impact Types 229 9.1.1 Economic Development Impact Types 229 9.1.2 Economic Development Impact Mechanisms 230 9.1.3 Selection of Appropriate Measures of Economic Impact 230 9.2 Tools for Economic Development Impact Assessment 231 9.2.1 Surveys and Interviews 232 9.2.2 Market Studies 235 9.2.3 Comparative Analysis Tools: Case Studies 235 9.2.4 Economic Multiplier/Input–Output Models 237 9.2.5 Statistical Analysis Tools 239 9.2.6 Economic Simulation Models 240 9.3 Estimation of Long-term Regional Economic Development Impacts 241 9.4 Case Study: Economic Development Impact Assessment 244 Summary 246 Exercises 246 References 247 Additional Resources 249 Chapter 10 Air Quality Impacts 251 Introduction 251 10.1 Air Pollution Sources and Trends 251 10.1.1 Pollutant Types, Sources, and Trends 251 10.1.2 Categories of Air Pollution 254 10.2 Estimating Pollutant Emissions 254 10.2.1 Some Definitions 254 10.2.2 Factors Affecting Pollutant Emissions from Motor Vehicles 254 10.2.3 Approaches for Estimating Pollutant Emissions from Highways 256 10.2.4 Procedure for Estimating Highway Pollutant Emissions 258 10.2.5 Software for Estimating Pollutant Emissions 261 10.3 Estimating Pollutant Concentration 265 10.3.1 Factors Affecting Pollutant Dispersion 265 10.3.2 Pollutant Dispersion Models 266 10.3.3 Software for Estimating Pollutant Dispersion and Concentrations 270 10.4 Air Pollution from Other Modes 271 10.4.1 Air Transportation 271 10.4.2 Rail Transportation 273 10.4.3 Marine Transportation 273 10.4.4 Transit (Various Modes) 273 10.5 Monetary Costs of Air Pollution 274 10.5.1 Methods of Air Pollution Cost Estimation 274 10.5.2 Air Pollution Cost Values 275 10.6 Air Quality Standards 276 10.7 Mitigating Air Pollution from Transportation Sources 276 10.8 Air Quality Legislation and Regulations 277 10.8.1 National Legislation 277 10.8.2 Global Agreements 278 Summary 278 Exercises 278 References 279 Additional Resources 280 Appendix A10.1: Using MOBILE6 to Estimate Emissions 280 Appendix A10.2: Values of the Gaussian Distribution Function 284 Chapter 11 Noise Impacts 287 Introduction 287 11.1 Fundamental Concepts of Sound 287 11.1.1 General Characteristics 287 11.1.2 Addition of Sound Pressure Levels from Multiple Sources 288 11.2 Sources of Transportation Noise 290 11.3 Factors Affecting Transportation Noise Propagation 290 11.3.1 Nature of Source, Distance, and Ground Effects 291 11.3.2 Effect of Noise Barriers 292 11.4 Procedure for Estimating Noise Impacts for Highways 292 11.5 Application of the Procedure using the FHWA Model Equations 293 11.5.1 Reference Energy Mean Emission Level 295 11.5.2 Traffic Flow Adjustment 295 11.5.3 Distance Adjustment 295 11.5.4 Adjustment for Finite-Length Roadways 295 11.5.5 Shielding Adjustment 296 11.5.6 Combining Noises from Various Vehicle Classes 299 11.6 Application of the Procedure Using the Traffic Noise Model (TNM) Software Package 300 11.6.1 The Traffic Noise Model 300 11.7 Estimating Noise Impacts for Other Modes 301 11.7.1 Transit Noise and Vibration 301 11.7.2 Air Transportation 301 11.7.3 Rail Transportation 301 11.7.4 Marine Noise 303 11.7.5 General Guidelines for Noise Impact Evaluation of New Transportation Improvements 303 11.8 Mitigation of Transportation Noise 304 11.8.1 Noise Barrier Cost Estimates 305 11.9 Legislation and Regulations Related to Transportation Noise 306 Summary 308 Exercises 308 References 309 Additional Resources 310 Appendix A11: Noise Attenuation Charts by Barriers Defined by N 0 , φ L ,andφ R 310 Chapter 12 Impacts on Wetlands and other Ecosystems 313 Introduction 313 12.1 Basic Ecological Concepts 313 12.1.1 Concept of Ecosystems 313 12.1.2 Physical Base 314 12.1.3 Wetland Ecosystems 314 12.2 Mechanisms of Ecological Impacts 315 12.2.1 Direct vs. Indirect Mechanisms 315 12.2.2 Impact Mechanism by Species Type 315 12.3 Ecological Impacts of Activities at Various PDP Phases 315 12.3.1 Locational Planning and Preliminary Field Surveys 316 12.3.2 Transportation System Design 319 12.3.3 Construction 319 12.3.4 Operations 319 12.3.5 Maintenance 320 12.4 Performance Goals for Ecological Impact Assessments 320 12.4.1 Diversity of the Physical Base of the Ecosystem 320 12.4.2 State of Habitat Fragmentation 320 12.4.3 Significant Species and Habitats 321 12.4.4 Diversity of Species 321 12.4.5 Ecosystem Stability 321 12.4.6 Ecosystem Quality or Productivity 322 12.5 Procedure for Ecological Impact Assessment 322 12.6 Key Legislation 329 12.6.1 Endangered Species Act of 1973 329 12.6.2 Laws Related to Wetlands and Other Habitats 329 12.7 Mitigation of Ecological Impacts 329 12.7.1 Mitigation at Various Phases of the Project Development Process 331 12.8 Methods and Software Packages for Ecological Impact Assessment 332 12.8.1 Wetland Functional Analysis 332 12.8.2 Hydrogeomorphic Classification Method 333 12.8.3 Habitat Evaluation Procedures Software 334 Summary 334 Exercises 334 References 335 Additional Resources 336 Chapter 13 Impacts on Water Resources 337 Introduction 337 13.1 Categories of Hydrological Impacts 337 13.1.1 Source of Impacts 337 13.1.2 Impact Types 338 13.1.3 Water Source Affected 338 13.1.4 Transportation Mode and Activity 338 13.2 Hydrological Impacts by Transportation Mode 338 13.2.1 Highway Impacts 338 13.2.2 Railway Impacts 339 13.2.3 Air Transportation Impacts 339 13.2.4 Marine Transportation Impacts 341 13.3 Performance Measures for Hydrological Impact Assessment 341 13.3.1 Measures Related to Water Quantity and Flow Patterns 342 13.3.2 Measures Related to Water Quality 342 13.4 Procedure for Water Quality Impact Assessment 343 13.5 Methods for Predicting Impacts on Water Resources 345 13.5.1 Impacts on Water Quantity 345 13.5.2 Impacts on Water Quality 348 13.6 Mitigation of Water Resource Impacts 353 13.6.1 Mitigation Measures by Impact Criterion 353 13.6.2 Mitigation Measures by Nature of Water Source 353 13.6.3 Mitigation Measures by PDP Phase 354 13.6.4 Discussion of Mitigation 354 13.7 Water Quality Standards 354 13.8 Legislation Related to Water Resource Conservation 354 13.9 Software for Water Resources Impact Assessment 355 Summary 355 Exercises 356 References 357 Additional Resources 358 Chapter 14 Visual Impacts 359 Introduction 359 14.1 Principles of Visual Performance 359 14.1.1 General Principles 359 14.1.2 Performance Measures for Visual Performance Assessment 360 14.2 Factors Affecting Visual Performance and Impact Mechanisms 361 14.2.1 Factors 361 14.2.2 Impact Mechanisms 363 14.3 Procedure for Visual Impact Assessment 363 14.4 Legislation Related to Visual Impact 371 14.5 Mitigation of Poor Visual Performance of Existing Facilities 371 14.6 Visual Performance Enhancement: State of Practice 372 14.6.1 Context-Sensitive Design Practices 373 14.6.2 Policies and Guidelines for Visual Performance Preservation and Enhancement 373 14.6.3 Cost of Visual Performance Enhancements 375 Summary 375 Exercises 376 References 376 Additional Resources 377 Chapter 15 Impacts on Energy Use 379 Introduction 379 15.1 Factors that Affect Transportation Energy Consumption 381 15.1.1 Fuel Prices and Taxes 381 15.1.2 Fuel Economy Regulation 381 15.1.3 Vehicle Sales by Class 381 15.1.4 Vehicle Technology 381 15.1.5 Road Geometry 381 15.1.6 Transportation Intervention 382 15.1.7 Other Factors 383 15.2 Energy Intensity 383 15.3 Framework for Energy Impact Analysis 383 15.3.1 Direct Consumption 384 15.3.2 Indirect Consumption 384 15.4 Procedures for Estimating Energy Consumption 386 15.4.1 Macroscopic Assessment: Approach A 386 15.4.2 Project Screening Level Model: Approach B 388 15.4.3 Microscopic Simulation: Approach c 393 15.5 The National Energy Modeling System 397 15.6 Approaches to Energy Consumption Estimation–a Comparison 399 15.7 Energy and Transportation: What the Future Holds 399 Summary 400 Exercises 400 References 401 Additional Resources 401 Chapter 16 Land-use Impacts 403 Introduction 403 16.1 The Transportation–Land-Use Relationship 404 16.1.1 Land-Use Impacts on Transportation 404 16.1.2 Transportation Impacts on Land Use 406 16.1.3 Land-Use Impacts in terms of Monetary Costs 406 16.2 Tools for Analyzing Land-Use Changes 407 16.2.1 Qualitative Tools 408 16.2.2 Quantitative Tools 409 16.3 Procedure for Land-Use Impact Assessment 413 16.4 Case Studies: Land-Use Impact Assessment 419 16.4.1 Evansville-Indianapolis I-69 Highway Project 419 16.4.2 Light-Rail Transit Project 420 Summary 422 Exercises 422 References 423 Chapter 17 Social and Cultural Impacts 427 Introduction 427 17.1 Mechanisms of Transportation Impacts on the Social and Cultural Environments 428 17.1.1 Direct Impacts 428 17.1.2 Indirect Impacts 428 17.1.3 Cumulative Impacts 429 17.2 Target Facilities and Groups, and Performance Measures 429 17.2.1 Target Facilities and Groups 429 17.2.2 Performance Measures 429 17.2.3 The Issue of Poverty Alleviation in Developing Countries 431 17.3 Equity and Environmental Justice Concerns 431 17.3.1 An Example of the Distribution of Project Costs and Benefits 434 17.4 Procedure for Social and Cultural Impact Assessment 435 17.5 Tools for Sociocultural Impact Assessment 439 17.5.1 Qualitative Tools 439 17.5.2 Quantitative Tools 441 17.6 Mitigation of Adverse Sociocultural Impacts 442 17.6.1 Sociocultural Impact Mitigation: State of Practice 442 17.7 Legislation Related to Sociocultural Impacts 443 Summary 444 Exercises 445 References 446 Additional Resources 447 Chapter 18 Evaluation of Transportation Projects and Programs Using Multiple Criteria 449 Introduction 449 18.1 Establishing Weights of Performance Criteria 449 18.1.1 Equal Weighting 449 18.1.2 Direct Weighting 450 18.1.3 Regression-Based Observer-Derived Weighting 450 18.1.4 Delphi Technique 451 18.1.5 Gamble Method 452 18.1.6 Pairwise Comparison of the Performance Criteria 453 18.1.7 Value Swinging Method 455 18.2 Scaling of Performance Criteria 456 18.2.1 Scaling Where Decision Making Is under Certainty 456 18.2.2 Scaling Where Decision Making Is under Risk 458 18.3 Combination of Performance Criteria 462 18.3.1 Combined Mathematical Functions of Value, Utility, or Cost-Effectiveness 462 18.3.2 Ranking and Rating Method 464 18.3.3 Maxmin Approach 465 18.3.4 Impact Index Method 466 18.3.5 Pairwise Comparison of Transportation Alternatives Using Ahp 467 18.3.6 Mathematical Programming 469 18.3.7 Pairwise Comparison of Alternatives Using the Outranking Method 472 18.4 Case Study: Evaluating Alternative Projects for a Transportation Corridor Using Multiple Criteria 473 18.5 General Considerations of Risk and Uncertainty in Evaluation 475 18.5.1 The Case of Certainty: Using Sensitivity Analysis 475 18.5.2 The Case of Objective Risk: Using Probability Distributions and Simulation 476 18.5.3 The Case of Uncertainty 477 Summary 479 Exercises 479 References 481 Additional Resources 481 Chapter 19 Use of Geographical and other Information Systems 483 Introduction 483 19.1 Hardware for Information Management 483 19.2 Software and Other Tools for Information Management 483 19.2.1 Non-GIS Relational Database Management Systems 483 19.2.2 Geographical Information Systems 484 19.2.3 Internet GIS 486 19.2.4 Video Log Information Management Systems 487 19.3 GIS Applications in Transportation Systems Evaluation 487 19.3.1 Query, Display, and Visualization of Initial Data 488 19.3.2 Buffer Analysis 488 19.3.3 Overlay Analysis 489 19.3.4 Analysis of Transportation Operations 489 19.3.5 Public Input in Transportation System Evaluation 489 19.3.6 Multicriteria Decision Making 490 19.4 Existing Databases and Information Systems 490 19.4.1 Information Systems and Data Items Available by Transportation Mode 490 19.4.2 General Databases Useful for Transportation Systems Evaluation 494 19.5 GIS-Based Software Packages for Information Management 495 Summary 495 Exercises 496 References 496 Chapter 20 Transportation Programming 497 Introduction 497 20.1 Roles of Programming 497 20.1.1 Optimal Investment Decisions 498 20.1.2 Trade-off Considerations 498 20.1.3 Linkage to Budgeting 498 20.1.4 Efficiency in Program and Project Delivery 498 20.1.5 Monitoring and Feedback 498 20.2 Procedure for Programming Transportation Projects 499 20.3 Programming Tools 504 20.3.1 Priority Setting 504 20.3.2 Heuristic Optimization 506 20.3.3 Mathematical Programming 506 20.4 Case Studies: Transportation Programming 512 20.4.1 Programming Process at a State Transportation Agency 513 20.4.2 Programming Process at a Metropolitan Area Level 515 20.5 Keys to Successful Programming and Implementation 518 20.5.1 Link between Planning and Programming 518 20.5.2 Uncertainties Affecting Transportation Programming 519 20.5.3 Intergovernmental Relationships 519 20.5.4 Equity Issues in Programming 519 Summary 520 Exercises 520 References 522 Additional Resources 523 General Appendix 1: Cost Indices 525 General Appendix 2: Performance Measures 527 Index 537