The past ten years have seen an explosion of useful research surrounding human motivation and emotion; new insights allow researchers to answer the perennial questions, including "What do people want?" and "Why do they want what they want?" By delving into the roots of motivation, the emotional processes at work, and the impacts on learning, performance, and well-being, this book provides a toolbox of practical interventions and approaches for use in a wide variety of settings. In the midst of the field's "golden age," there has never been a better time to merge new understanding and practical application to improve people’s lives. Useful in schools, the workplace, clinical settings, health care, sports, industry, business, and even interpersonal relationships, these concepts are profoundly powerful; incorporated into the state-of-the-art intervention programs detailed here, they can enhance people's motivation, emotion, and outlook while answering the core questions of any human interaction.

Table of Contents:
Preface iii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 What Is Motivation? Why Is It Important? 2 Motivational Science 4 Two Perennial Questions 5 What Causes Behavior? 5 Why Does Behavior Vary in Its Intensity? 7 Subject Matter 7 Internal Motives 8 External Events and Social Contexts 9 Motivation versus Influence 10 Expressions of Motivation 10 Behavior 10 Engagement 11 Psychophysiology 12 Brain Activations 12 Self-Report 13 Framework to Understand Motivation and Emotion 13 Ten Unifying Themes 14 Motivation and Emotion Benefit Adaptation and Functioning 14 Motivation and Emotion Direct Attention 15 Motivation and Emotion Are “Intervening Variables” 16 Motives Vary Over Time and Contribute into the Ongoing Stream of Behavior 16 Types of Motivations Exist 17 We Are Not Always Consciously Aware of the Motivational Basis of Our Behavior 18 Motivation Study Reveals What People Want 19 To Flourish, Motivation Needs Supportive Conditions 19 When Trying to Motivate Others, What Is Easy to Do Is Rarely What Works 20 There Is Nothing So Practical as a Good Theory 21 Summary 21 CHAPTER 2 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 24 Philosophical Origins of Motivational Concepts 25 Grand Theories 26 Will 26 Instinct 26 Drive 28 Rise of the Mini-Theories 33 Active Nature of the Person 34 Cognitive Revolution 35 Socially Relevant Questions 35 Contemporary Era 37 The 1990s Reemergence of Motivation Study 38 Brief History of Emotion Study 40 Conclusion 41 Summary 42 Readings for Further Study 43 CHAPTER 3 THE MOTIVATED AND EMOTIONAL BRAIN 44 Motivation, Emotion, and Neuroscience 46 Day-to-Day Events Activate Specific Brain Structures 46 Activated Brain Structures Generate Specific Motivations and Emotions 47 Neural Basis of Motivation and Emotion 47 Cortical Brain 47 Subcortical Brain 48 Bidirectional Communication 48 Individual Brain Structures Involved in Motivation and Emotion 49 Subcortical Brain Structures 50 Cortical Brain Structures 59 Hormones 65 Summary 67 Readings for Further Study 68 PART I NEEDS 69 CHAPTER 4 PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS 71 Need 72 Three Types of Needs 72 Fundamentals of Regulation 74 Physiological Need 75 Psychological Drive 75 Homeostasis 75 Negative Feedback 76 Multiple Inputs/Multiple Outputs 76 Intraorganismic Mechanisms 77 Extraorganismic Mechanisms 77 Homeostatic Mechanism 77 Thirst 78 Physiological Regulation 79 Environmental Influences 80 Hunger 81 Short-Term Appetite 81 Long-Term Energy Balance 82 Environmental Influences 84 Self-Regulatory Influences 85 Weight Gain and Obesity 86 Comprehensive Model of Hunger 87 Sex 88 Physiological Regulation 88 Facial Metrics 90 Sexual Scripts 93 Sexual Orientation 94 Evolutionary Basis of Sexual Motivation 94 Summary 96 Readings for Further Study 97 CHAPTER 5 EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION AND INTERNALIZATION 98 Extrinsic Motivation 100 Incentives and Consequences 100 Incentives 101 Reinforcers 101 Managing Behavior 102 Consequences 103 Hidden Costs of Reward 106 Intrinsic Motivation 107 Intrinsic Motivation versus Extrinsic Motivation 108 Expected and Tangible Rewards 111 Implications 111 Benefits of Extrinsic Motivation 111 Cognitive Evaluation Theory 112 Two Examples of Controlling and Informational Events 113 Types of Extrinsic Motivation 115 External Regulation 117 Introjected Regulation 117 Identified Regulation 117 Integrated Regulation 118 Internalization and Integration 118 Motivating Others on Uninteresting Activities 119 Amotivation 120 Summary 121 Readings for Further Study 122 CHAPTER 6 PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS 123 Psychological Needs 124 Organismic Psychological Needs 125 Benefits of Need Satisfaction 125 Need Frustration 127 Autonomy 128 Supporting Autonomy 129 The Conundrum of Choice 134 Benefits from Autonomy Support 135 Giving and Receiving Autonomy Support 136 Competence 136 Optimal Challenge 137 Flow 137 Structure 139 Failure Tolerance 141 Relatedness 142 Involving Relatedness 143 Satisfying Relatedness 143 Supporting Relatedness 144 Communal and Exchange Relationships 145 Benefits from Relatedness Need Satisfaction 146 Putting it All Together: Relationships and Social Contexts that Support Psychological Need Satisfaction 146 Engagement 147 What Makes for a Good Day? 147 Vitality 149 Summary 149 Readings for Further Study 150 CHAPTER 7 IMPLICIT MOTIVES 152 Implicit Motives 154 Acquired Needs 155 Social Needs 155 How Implicit Motives, as Acquired Psychological Needs, Motivate Behavior 158 Achievement 159 Origins of the Need for Achievement 160 Atkinson’s Model 161 Achievement for the Future 163 Dynamics-of-Action Model 163 Conditions That Involve and Satisfy the Need for Achievement 165 Affiliation 166 Duality of Affiliation Motivation 167 Conditions That Involve the Affiliation and Intimacy Duality 167 Conditions That Satisfy the Affiliation Need 168 Power 169 Conditions That Involve and Satisfy the Need for Power 170 Goal Pursuit and Perspective Taking 172 Is the Implicit Power Motive Bad? 172 Leadership Motive Pattern 172 Compassionate Leadership Profile 173 Four Additional Social Needs 175 Summary 175 Readings for Further Study 176 PART II COGNITIONS 177 CHAPTER 8 GOAL SETTING AND GOAL STRIVING 179 Cognitive Springs to Action 180 Plans 181 Corrective Motivation 183 Discrepancy 183 Discrepancy, Emotions, and Feelings 184 Two Types of Discrepancy 185 Goal Setting 186 Goal–Performance Discrepancy 186 Difficult, Specific, and Congruent Goals Enhance Performance 187 Feedback 189 Criticisms 190 Long-Term Goal Setting 192 From Where Do Goals Come? 192 Goal Striving 193 Mental Simulations 193 Implementation Intentions 194 Goal Disengagement 198 Summary 200 Readings for Further Study 201 CHAPTER 9 MINDSETS 202 Mindset 203 Mindset 1: Deliberative–Implemental 203 Deliberative Mindset 205 Implemental Mindset 205 Downstream Consequences of the Deliberative and Implemental Mindsets 206 Mindset 2: Promotion–Prevention 206 Promotion Mindset 207 Prevention Mindset 208 Different Definitions of Success and Failure 208 Different Goal-Striving Strategies 209 Ideal Self-Guides and Ought Self-Guides 210 Regulatory Fit Predicts Strength of Motivation and Well-Being 211 Mindset 3: Growth-Fixed 211 Fixed Mindset 212 Growth Mindset 212 Meaning of Effort 212 Origins of Fixed-Growth Mindsets 214 Different Fixed-Growth Mindsets Lead to Different Achievement Goals 215 Achievement Goals 217 Cognitive Dissonance 221 Dissonance-Arousing Situations 222 Motivational Processes Underlying Cognitive Dissonance 224 Self-Perception Theory 224 Summary 225 Readings for Further Study 226 CHAPTER 10 PERSONAL CONTROL BELIEFS 227 Motivation to Exercise Personal Control 228 Two Kinds of Expectancy 229 Perceived Control: Self, Action, and Control 230 Coping with Failure 230 Self-Efficacy 231 Sources of Self-Efficacy 233 Self-Efficacy Effects on Behavior 235 Empowerment 237 Empowering People: Mastery Modeling Program 238 Mastery Beliefs 239 Ways of Coping 239 Mastery versus Helplessness 239 Learned Helplessness 240 Learning Helplessness 241 Application to Humans 242 Components 243 Helplessness Effects 244 Helplessness and Depression 245 Attributions and Explanatory Style 246 Reactance Theory 249 Expectancy–Value Model 250 Value 251 Value Interventions 252 Summary 252 Readings for Further Study 253 CHAPTER 11 THE SELF AND ITS STRIVINGS 255 Two Views of Self 256 Self-as-Object 257 Self-as-Agent 257 The Problem with Self-Esteem 258 Self-Concept 259 Self-Schemas 260 Motivational Properties of Self-Schemas 260 Consistent Self 261 Self-Verification versus Self-Concept Change 262 Why People Self-Verify 263 Possible Selves 263 Identity 266 Roles 267 Connections to Social Groups 267 Situations Make Specific Identities Salient 267 Agency 268 Self as Action and Development from Within 268 True Self? 269 Self-Concordance 270 Intrinsic Goals and Extrinsic Goals 271 Self-Regulation 273 Forethought through Reflection 273 Developing More Competent Self-Regulation 274 Self-Control 275 Is the Capacity to Exert Self-Control Beneficial to a Successful Life? 279 Summary 279 Readings for Further Study 280 PART III EMOTIONS 283 CHAPTER 12 NATURE OF EMOTION: SIX PERENNIAL QUESTIONS 285 Six Perennial Questions 286 What is an Emotion? 287 Definition 288 Relation between Emotion and Motivation 290 What Causes an Emotion? 291 Two-Systems View 292 Chicken-and-Egg 293 What Ends an Emotion? 294 How Many Emotions are There? 294 Biological Perspective 294 Cognitive Perspective 296 Reconciliation of the Numbers Issue 297 What Good are the Emotions? 299 Coping Functions 299 Social Functions 300 Why We Have Emotions 302 Can We Control Our Emotions? 303 Emotion Regulation Strategies 304 What is the Difference Between Emotion and Mood? 306 Everyday Mood 306 Positive Affect 308 Summary 310 Readings for Further Study 311 CHAPTER 13 ASPECTS OF EMOTION 313 Biological Aspects of Emotion 314 James–Lange Theory 315 Contemporary Perspective 315 Brain Activity Activates Individual Emotions 317 Facial Feedback Hypothesis 318 Cognitive Aspects of Emotion 324 Appraisal 324 Complex Appraisal 327 Appraisal as a Process 329 Emotion Differentiation 330 Emotion Knowledge 331 Attributions 332 Emotions Affect Cognition 334 Social Aspects of Emotion 334 Social Interaction 334 Social Sharing of Emotion 335 Summary 337 Readings for Further Study 338 CHAPTER 14 INDIVIDUAL EMOTIONS 339 Basic Emotions 340 Fear 341 Anger 342 Disgust 343 Contempt 344 Sadness 345 Emotional Preparation for Threat and Harm 346 Joy 346 Interest 347 Emotional Preparation for Motive Involvement and Satisfaction 348 Self-Conscious Emotions 348 Shame 348 Guilt 350 Embarrassment 351 Pride 352 Triumph 352 Interrelations among Shame, Guilt, Embarrassment, Pride, and Hubris 353 Cognitively Complex Emotions 353 Envy 353 Gratitude 355 Disappointment and Regret 356 Hope 357 Schadenfreude 357 Empathy 358 Compassion 359 Summary 360 Readings for Further Study 361 PART IV APPLIED CONCERNS 363 CHAPTER 15 GROWTH MOTIVATION AND POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 365 Holism and Positive Psychology 367 Holism 368 Positive Psychology 368 Self-Actualization 368 Hierarchy of Human Needs 369 Encouraging Growth 371 Actualizing Tendency 371 Organismic Valuing Process 372 Emergence of the Self 373 Conditions of Worth 374 Conditional Regard as a Socialization Strategy 376 Fully Functioning Individual 378 Organismic Integration 379 Humanistic Motivational Phenomena 379 Causality Orientations 379 Growth-Seeking versus Validation Seeking 380 Relationships 381 Freedom to Learn 382 Self-Definition and Social Definition 382 Problem of Evil 383 Positive Psychology 385 Happiness and Well-Being 385 Eudaimonic Well-Being 387 Optimism 388 Meaning 389 Positivity 390 Mindfulness 391 Interventions 391 Cultivating Hope 392 Cultivating Compassion 392 Criticisms 394 Summary 395 Readings for Further Study 396 CHAPTER 16 UNCONSCIOUS MOTIVATION 397 Psychodynamic Perspective 398 Psychoanalytic Becomes Psychodynamic 399 Dual-Instinct Theory 400 Do the Id and Ego Actually Exist? 401 Contemporary Psychodynamic Theory 402 The Unconscious 403 Freudian Unconscious 403 Adaptive Unconscious 404 Implicit Motivation 406 Priming 407 Psychodynamics 408 Repression 409 Suppression 409 Terror Management Theory 411 Ego Psychology 412 Ego Development 412 Ego Defense 413 Ego Effectance 415 Object Relations Theory 416 Criticisms 419 Summary 420 Readings for Further Study 421 CHAPTER 17 INTERVENTIONS 423 Applying Principles of Motivation and Emotion 424 Explaining Motivation and Emotion 424 Predicting Motivation and Emotion 425 Solving Motivational and Emotional Problems 425 Practice Problems 426 Three State-of-the-Art Interventions 428 Preface 428 Intervention 1: Satisfying Psychological Needs 428 Intervention 2: Increasing a Growth Mindset 431 Intervention 3: Promoting Emotion Knowledge 434 Wisdom Gained from a Scientific Study of Motivation and Emotion 436 References 439 Author Index 515 Subject Index 530