In the 21st Century, processing food is no longer a simple or straightforward matter. Ongoing advances in manufacturing have placed new demands on the design and methodology of food processes. A highly interdisciplinary science, food process design draws upon the principles of chemical and mechanical engineering, microbiology, chemistry, nutrition and economics, and is of central importance to the food industry. Process design is the core of food engineering, and is concerned at its root with taking new concepts in food design and developing them through production and eventual consumption.
Handbook of Food Process Design is a major new 2-volume work aimed at food engineers and the wider food industry. Comprising 46 original chapters written by a host of leading international food scientists, engineers, academics and systems specialists, the book has been developed to be the most comprehensive guide to food process design ever published.
Starting from first principles, the book provides a complete account of food process designs, including heating and cooling, pasteurization, sterilization, refrigeration, drying, crystallization, extrusion, and separation. Mechanical operations including mixing, agitation, size reduction, extraction and leaching processes are fully documented. Novel process designs such as irradiation, high-pressure processing, ultrasound, ohmic heating and pulsed UV-light are also presented. Food packaging processes are considered, and chapters on food quality, safety and commercial imperatives portray the role process design in the broader context of food production and consumption.
Table of Contents:
Preface xix Acknowledgements xxi
About the Editors xxii
Contributors xxiv
Volume I
1 Food Preservation and Processing Methods 1
Mohammad Shafiur Rahman
Introduction 1
Purpose of Food Preservation 2
Food Preservation Methods 3
References 16
2 Food Process Design: Overview 18
Mohammad Shafiur Rahman and Jasim Ahmed
Introduction 18
Components of Food Process Design 19
Unit Operations and Complete Process 20
Process Flow Diagram 20
Codes, Standards and Recommended Practices 21
Process Severity, Quality and Safety 22
References 23
3 Units and Dimensions 24
E. Ozgul Evranuz
Introduction 24
Systems of Measurement 25
The SI System 27
Definition of Some Derived Physical Quantities 28
Dimensional Consistency 35
Precision and Accuracy 35
Unit Conversions 36
Guidelines for Using SI Units 36
References 38
4 Material and Energy Balances 39
E. Ozgul Evranuz and Meral Kilic-Akyilmaz
Introduction 39
Fundamentals of Material Balances 40
Examples of Material Balance Calculations with and without Reaction 45
Overview of Food Processes 53
Energy Balances 56
Examples of Material and Energy Balances in Food Processing 65
References 71
5 Thermodynamics in Food Process Design 74
Santanu Basu and Pinaki Bhattacharya
Introduction 74
Thermodynamic Fundamentals 75
First Law of Thermodynamics: Conservation of Energy 76
Second Law of Thermodynamics: Entropy 82
Application of Thermodynamics in Food Systems 89
References 111
6 Chemical Reaction Kinetics Pertaining to Foods 113
Jasim Ahmed, Kirk Dolan and Dharmendra Mishra
Introduction 113
Basics of Chemical Reaction Kinetics 114
Types of Reactions 115
Fraction Conversion Concept 118
Temperature Dependence of the Rate Constants 119
Types of Reactor 120
Reaction Kinetics Related to Food 122
Statistical Aspects of Kinetic Modeling 144
Conclusions 158
References 159
7 Thermal Food Processing Optimization: Single and Multi-objective Optimization Case Studies 167
Ricardo Simpson and Alik Abakarov
Introduction 167
Types of Optimization Methods 169
Single-objective Optimization of Thermal Food Processing 171
Multi-objective Optimization of Thermal Food Processing 173
Results and Discussion 177
Summary and Conclusion 185
References 185
8 Instrumentation, Sensor Design and Selection 190
Weibiao Zhou and Nantawan Therdthai
Introduction 190
Classification of Sensors 191
Measurements and Sensors in Food Process Control Systems 192
Criteria for Selection of Sensors 197
Recently Developed Measurement Techniques for Food Processes 201
Summary 207
References 207
9 Automation and Process Control 211
Kazi Bayzid Kabir and M.A.A. Shoukat Choudhury
Introduction 211
Food Processing Automation and Control: Current Status 212
Basic Control Theory 217
Current Practice and Future Trends in Food Process Automation 233
Conclusions 236
References 236
10 Use of Various Computational Tools and gPROMS for Modelling Simulation Optimisation and Control of Food Processes 239
I.M. Mujtaba
Introduction 239
Reactor in Food Processing 240
Distillation in Food Processing 242
Extraction in Food Processing 244
Thermal Treatments in Food Processing 245
Model-based Techniques in Food Processing: Simulation, Optimisation and Control 246
Food Properties in Model-based Techniques 250
Computational Software in Food Processing 251
Conclusions 253
References 254
11 Fluid Flow and Pump Selection 262
Jasim Ahmed and Rajib Ul Alam Uzzal
Introduction 262
Nature of Fluids 262
Basic Equations Related to Fluid Flow 269
Measurement of Flowing Fluids 278
Pipes, Fittings and Valves 282
Pumps 290
Fans, Blowers and Compressors 294
Selection of Pump and Performance Evaluation 295
References 296
12 Heating and Cooling System Analysis Based on Complete Process Network 299
Martin Picon-Nunez
Introduction 299
Determination of Process Heating and Cooling Needs 300
Process Heating 310
Process Cooling 315
Heat Exchangers for Heating and Cooling in the Food Industry 329
Summary 332
References 333
13 Pasteurisation Process Design 335
Gary Tucker
Introduction 335
HACCP in Pasteurisation Process Design 336
Processing Options 337
Pasteurisation Design Principles 339
Empirical Data and P-Value Guidelines 341
Equipment for Pasteurisation Processes 343
Summary and Future Trends 360
References 361
Further Reading 361
14 Sterilization Process Design 362
Ricardo Simpson, Helena Nunez and Sergio Almonacid
Introduction 362
Importance of Microorganisms in Sterilization and Pasteurization 363
Heat Transfer in Thermal Processing 370
Quality Evaluation 373
Industrial Equipment 375
Acknowledgments 379
References 379
15 Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Cold Storage 381
Mohd. Kaleem Khan
Introduction 381
Refrigeration 382
Air Conditioning Systems 399
Cold Storage 410
Worked Examples 413
References 428
16 Chilling, Freezing and Thawing Process Design 430
Mohammad Shafiur Rahman
Introduction 430
Chilling 430
Freezing 433
Thawing 452
Nomenclature 453
References 455
17 Thermal Evaporator Design 460
Tarif Ali Adib
Introduction 460
Thermophysical Properties of Liquid Food 461
Characteristics of Liquids and Some Evaporator Problems 462
Single-effect Evaporator and Design Calculations for Evaporators 463
Types of Evaporator 465
Heat Transfer Coefficient in Evaporators 470
Energy Economics 475
Hygienic Design and Methods of Cleaning 479
Example 481
Nomenclature 485
References 487
18 Food Processing and Control by Air Jet Impingement 489
Gianpaolo Ruocco and Maria Valeria De Bonis
Introduction 489
Principles of Air Jet Impingement 491
A Conjugate Approach 493
Food Processing and Control of Heating/Drying Treatments 499
Conclusions 505
Nomenclature 506
References 508
19 Hot Air Drying Design: Tray and Tunnel Dryer 510
Jasim Ahmed, U.S. Shivhare and Rajib Ul Alam Uzzal
Introduction 510
Drying of Food 513
Drying Systems 518
Design Considerations in Tray and Tunnel Dryers 519
Design of Tray Dryers 520
Design of Tunnel Dryers 528
Economic Performance of Tray and Tunnel Dryers 536
Energy Management of Tray and Tunnel Dryers 538
Costs of Drying Operations 538
Conclusions 539
Acknowledgment 539
References 539
20 Hot Air Drying Design: Fluidized Bed Drying 542
R.T. Patil and Dattatreya M. Kadam
Introduction 542
Design Features 544
Design of HTST Pneumatic Fluidized Bed Dryer 559
Types of Fluidized Bed Dryers 564
Application of Fluidized Bed Drying 572
Acknowledgment 576
Further Reading 576
Websites 577
21 Heat Pump Design for Food Processing 578
M.N.A. Hawlader and K.A. Jahangeer
Introduction 578
Types of Heat Pump 580
Drying of Agricultural Products and Heat Pump 582
Heat Pumps for Food Processing 584
Modelling, Simulation and Design of Heat Pumps 594
Practice Problems 612
Summary 615
Nomenclature 616
References 618
22 Freeze-drying Process Design 621
Cristina Ratti
Introduction 621
Underlying Principles of Freeze-drying 622
Process Design 625
Modeling the Process 636
Industrial Freeze-drying 636
Costs 639
Unconventional Freeze-drying 640
Conclusions 641
References 642
23 Crystallization Process Design 648
John J. Fitzpatrick
Introduction 648
Crystallization 651
Crystallization Equipment 660
Process Design of Batch Cooling Crystallizers 663
Process Design of Continuous Evaporative and Vacuum Evaporative Crystallizers 672
Monitoring and Control of Crystallization Processes 678
References 680
24 Aseptic Process Design 682
Prabhat Kumar, K.P. Sandeep and Josip Simunovic
Introduction 682
History of Aseptic Processing 683
Important Aspects of Aseptic Process Design 686
Regulations Related to Aseptic Processing 705
Case Study: Aseptic Processing of Sweetpotato Purée 705
Future Trends 707
References 707
25 Extrusion Process Design 710
Kasiviswanathan Muthukumarappan and Chinnadurai Karunanithy
Introduction 710
Types of Extruder 711
Extruder Components 712
Extruder Variables 720
Feed Ingredient Variables 720
Interactions Between Extruder and Ingredient Variables 722
Product Qualities 727
Supercritical Fluid Extrusion 732
Cost Economics of Extrusion 734
Conclusions 734
References 735
Index to Volumes I and II
Volume II
26 Baking Process Design 743
Emmanuel Purlis
Introduction 743
The Baking Process 745
Baking Design Based on Process Modelling and Simulation 751
Baking Equipment 756
Trends in Baking Technology 759
Conclusions 760
Appendix: Worked Examples 761
Nomenclature 765
References 766
27 Membrane Separation and Design 769
Rohit Ruhal and Bijan Choudhury
Introduction 769
Process Flow-sheet for Membrane Operation 770
Basic Theoretical Principle, Membrane Operation Mode and Membrane Materials 772
Membrane Modules 773
Types of Membrane Process 775
Flux Equations 779
Mode of Operation 781
Design of Membrane 782
Fouling of Membrane in Ultrafiltration and Microfiltration 784
Cleaning and Sanitation 784
Cost 784
Applications 784
Conclusions 786
References 787
28 Food Frying Process Design 789
Ferruh Erdogdu and T. Koray Palazoglu
Introduction 789
Fried Products 793
Quality Attributes of Fried Products 793
Frying Oils 795
Frying Equipment 797
Heat and Mass Transfer during Frying 801
Process Control 805
Conclusions and Future Needs 806
References 807
29 Mechanical Separation Design 811
Timothy J. Bowser
Definition and Purpose 811
Food Products Processed by Mechanical Separation 812
Theoretical Principles of Mechanical Separation 812
Equipment Used for Mechanical Separation 816
Design of Mechanical Separation Processes 824
Process Control 827
Hazard and Safety Issues 828
Cleaning and Sanitation Methods 828
Capital and Operating Costs 829
Future Needs 829
References 830
30 Mixing and Agitation Design 834
Siddhartha Singha and Tapobrata Panda
Introduction 834
Mixing and Agitation: Theoretical Principles 835
Mixing Equipment: Mode of Operation and Comparative Analysis 839
Design Principles of Mixers in the Food Industry 849
Operational Issues of Mixing Equipment 863
Capital and Operating Costs for Different-sized Equipment 866
Summary and Future Needs 867
References 868
31 Extraction Process Design 871
Q. Tuan Pham and Frank P. Lucien
Introduction 871
Liquid–Liquid Extraction 872
Solid–Liquid Extraction (Leaching) 890
Supercritical Fluid Extraction 901
Hygienic Design Aspects 909
Economics 911
Summary and Future Needs 912
Nomenclature 913
References 915
32 Size Reduction Process Design 919
M. Reza Zareifard, Ali Esehaghbeygi and Amin Allah Masoumi
Introduction 919
Texture of Materials 921
Size Classifications 921
Size Reduction Procedures 925
Types of Stresses and Energy Requirements 928
Performance Characteristics 934
Devices 936
Solid Foods Size Reduction 949
Liquid Foods Size Reduction 951
Nanoparticles in the Food Industry 955
References 961
33 Irradiation Process Design 967
Rod Chu
Introduction 967
Applications of Food Irradiation 969
The Food Irradiation Process 970
The Food Irradiation Process Flow 971
Basic Theoretical Principles 972
Design Considerations for Food Irradiators 975
Rules of Thumb 980
Simple Equations 982
Process Control 985
Software for Modeling Food Irradiators 987
Cleaning and Sanitation Methods 990
Capital and Operating Costs for Different Sizes of Equipment 991
Summary and Future Needs 992
Examples of Food Irradiators 993
References 994
34 Design for High-Pressure Processing 998
Tatiana Koutchma
Introduction 998
The Commercial Market for HHP-Processed Products 999
The Potential of HHP Technology as a Unit Operation 999
The HHP Processing Cycle 1002
HHP Pasteurization 1004
HHP Sterilization 1005
Mode of Operation 1005
The Design of High-Pressure Vessels 1008
Commercial HHP Vessels and Process Economics 1010
The Regulatory Status of HHP Processing 1011
Basic Theoretical Principles 1012
Design and Calculations for HHP Preservation Processes 1017
Summary and Future Needs 1024
References 1025
35 Microwave and Radio-Frequency Heating Processes for Food 1031
Francesco Marra
Introduction 1031
Indirect Electroheating: Basic Information about MW and RF Heating 1032
Empirical Data and Properties Needed for Designing MW and RF Processes 1038
Conceptual Design of Electroheating Processes 1040
Equipment 1041
Processes, Products and Potential Products 1044
MW and RF Safety Guidelines 1049
The Economics of MW and RF Processing 1050
References 1052
36 Design of Ohmic Heating Processes 1057
Ilkay Sensoy
Introduction 1057
Applications of Ohmic Heating and Moderate-Electric-Field Processing 1059
The Ohmic Heating Process 1062
Summary and Future Needs 1071
Nomenclature 1071
References 1072
37 Design of Equipment for Pulsed Electric Field Processing 1078
Federico Gomez Galindo and Par Henriksson
Introduction 1078
Principles and Technology 1080
Calculations, Monitoring and Optimization of Treatment Parameters 1093
Capital and Operating Costs 1097
Summary and Future Needs 1098
References 1100
38 Process Design Involving Ultrasound 1107
Jordi Salazar, Antoni Turo, Juan A. Chavez and Miguel J. Garcia-Hernandez
Introduction 1107
Fundamentals of Ultrasound 1108
Low-Intensity Ultrasound 1109
High-Intensity Ultrasound 1134
Conclusions 1155
References 1156
39 Process Design Involving Pulsed UV Light 1166
Ali Demirci and Nene M. Keklik
Introduction 1166
End Products of the Process 1167
Process Components 1170
Basic Theoretical Principles and Mode of Operation 1171
Equipment (Advantages and Limitations) and Parameters 1173
Empirical Data and Rules of Thumb 1174
Estimation of the Design Parameters 1177
Process Control, Operations and Maintenance 1178
Advanced Levels of Process Design for Complicated Systems 1178
Cleaning and Sanitation Techniques 1179
Capital and Operating Costs 1180
Examples of Studies 1180
Worked Examples 1182
Summary and Future Needs 1183
References 1184
40 High-Voltage Food Processing Technology: Theory, Processing Design and Applications 1188
Paul Takhistov
Introduction 1188
Unifi ed Analysis of Electric-Field-Based Food Processing Technologies 1190
Pulsed Electric Fields in Food Processing and Preservation 1202
Treatment Chambers and Equipment 1203
Mechanisms of Microbial Inactivation 1207
Events in Electroporation and Microbial Lysis 1208
Kinetics of Microbial Inactivation 1211
PEF Process Calculations and Variables 1213
Mathematical Model of Continuous Operation (Esplugas et al., 2001) 1218
Process Calculations 1219
Physical Properties of Food Products for PEF Processing 1219
Application of PEF Treatment to Food Preservation 1221
PEF Treatment as a Hurdle Technology 1225
References 1229
41 An Overview
Jasim Ahmed and Tanweer Alam
Introduction 1237
Why Do We Need Packaging? 1239
Mass Transfer and Food–Package Interactions 1242
Food Packaging Materials 1245
Sterilization of Packaging Materials 1256
Packaging Design 1258
Packaging for Nonthermal Processes 1260
Biodegradable Packaging 1266
The Future of Packaging 1268
Packaging Safety, Legislation and Regulations 1274
Conclusions 1276
References 1276
42 Mass Transport Phenomena in Food Packaging Design 1284
Marcella Mastromatteo, Amalia Conte and Matteo Alessandro Del Nobile
Introduction 1284
Barrier Properties: Steady State 1288
Barrier Properties: Transient State 1320
References 1332
43 Design of Modifi ed and Controlled Atmospheres 1340
Gurbuz Gunes and Celale Kirkin
Introduction 1340
Gases Used in Modifi ed Atmospheres 1341
Packaging Materials 1342
Design of Modifi ed-Atmosphere Packaging for Foods 1343
Equipment for MAP 1359
Controlled-Atmosphere Storage 1360
Nomenclature 1361
References 1362
44 Packaging for Processed Food and the Environment 1369
Eva Almenar, Muhammad Siddiq and Crispin Merkel
Introduction 1369
Packaging for Processed Food and the Environment 1370
Traditional Packaging Materials and the Environment 1379
Novel Packaging Materials and the Environment 1390
The Future: the Role of Consumers and the Food Industry in the Impact of Packaging on the Environment 1395
Acknowledgment 1397
References 1398
45 Food Quality and Safety Assurance by Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point 1406
Tomas Norton and Brijesh Tiwari
Introduction 1406
Introduction to Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) 1408
The Advantages of Using the HACCP Approach 1410
Prerequisite Programmes 1411
Developing a HACCP Plan 1412
The Seven Principles of HACCP 1413
Implementing the HACCP Plan 1415
Using HACCP during Food Manufacturing 1420
HACCP in a Meat Plant 1422
HACCP in a Cheese Plant 1425
HACCP in a Fish-Smoking Plant 1425
The Infl uence of HACCP on Hygienic Design 1429
Combining HACCP and ISO 22000:2005 1431
References 1433
46 Commercial Imperatives 1436
Gerard La Rooy
Introduction 1436
Fundamental Financial Matters 1437
Financial Impacts of Technical Projects 1442
Analytical Concepts and Techniques 1444
Process Variability 1452
Adopting a ‘Process-Based Approach’ 1455
A Sound Design Process 1460
Applying the Concepts and Techniques 1470
References 1470
Index to Volumes I and II
